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• Handbook – Optical fibres, cables and systems
• Foreword
• PREFACE
• TABLE OF CONTENTS
• CHAPTER 1 – OPTICAL FIBRES CHARACTERISTICS
  • Introduction
  • 1 Single-mode and multimode optical fibres
  • 2 Fibre design issues
  • 3 Fibre manufacturing methods
  • 4 Specification of the optical fibres characteristics
  • 5 Fibre attributes
    • 5.1 Core characteristics
    • 5.2 Mode field characteristics
    • 5.3 Effective area (Aeff )
    • 5.4 Cladding characteristics
    • 5.5 Cut-off wavelength
    • 5.6 Numerical aperture
    • 5.7 Macrobending loss
    • 5.8 Fibre and protective materials
    • 5.9 Proof-stress level
    • 5.10 Refractive index profile
    • 5.11 Modal bandwidth
    • 5.12 Chromatic dispersion
      • 5.12.1 Chromatic dispersion definitions
      • 5.12.2 Chromatic dispersion coefficient
      • 5.12.3 Longitudinal uniformity of chromatic dispersion
  • 6 Cables attributes
    • 6.1 Attenuation
    • 6.2 Polarization mode dispersion
  • 7 Link attributes
    • 7.1 Attenuation
      • 7.1.1 Attenuation of a link
      • 7.1.2 Wavelength dependence of attenuation
    • 7.2 Chromatic dispersion
      • 7.2.1 Chromatic dispersion of a link
      • 7.2.2 Wavelength dependence of chromatic dispersion
    • 7.3 Differential group delay
    • 7.4 Non-linear coefficient
  • 8 Test methods of single-mode optical fibres and cables
  • 9 Optical fibre types specified by ITU-T
    • 9.1 Multimode optical fibres
      • 9.1.1 A 50/125 ?m multimode graded index optical fibre cable
    • 9.2 Single-mode optical fibres
      • 9.2.1 The ITU-T first single-mode optical fibre and cable
      • 9.2.2 A dispersion-shifted single-mode optical fibre and cable
      • 9.2.3 A cut-off shifted single-mode optical fibre and cable
      • 9.2.4 A non-zero dispersion-shifted single-mode optical fibre and cable
      • 9.2.5 A fibre and cable with non-zero dispersion for wideband optical transport
      • 9.2.6 A bending loss insensitive single mode optical fibre and cable for the access network
• CHAPTER 2 – GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS OF OPTICAL CABLES
  • Introduction
  • 1 External factors impacting optical cables
  • 2 Mechanical and environmental effects on the optical fibres
    • 2.1 Residual fibre strain
      • 2.1.1 Causes
      • 2.1.2 Effects
      • 2.1.3 Constructional considerations
    • 2.2 Impulsive fibre strain
      • 2.2.1 Causes
      • 2.2.2 Effects
      • 2.2.3 Constructional considerations
    • 2.3 Fibre macrobending
      • 2.3.1 Causes
      • 2.3.2 Effects
      • 2.3.3 Constructional considerations
    • 2.4 Fibre microbending
      • 2.4.1 Causes
      • 2.4.2 Effects
      • 2.4.3 Constructional considerations
    • 2.5 Water and moisture
      • 2.5.1 Causes
      • 2.5.2 Effects
      • 2.5.3 Constructional considerations
    • 2.6 Hydrogen
      • 2.6.1 Causes
      • 2.6.2 Effects
      • 2.6.3 Constructional considerations
    • 2.7 Lightning
      • 2.7.1 Causes
      • 2.7.2 Effects
      • 2.7.3 Constructional considerations
    • 2.8 Nuclear radiation
      • 2.8.1 Causes
      • 2.8.2 Effects
      • 2.8.3 Constructional considerations
    • 2.9 Induced voltage
      • 2.9.1 Causes
      • 2.9.2 Effects
      • 2.9.3 Constructional considerations
    • 2.10 Biological attack
  • 3 General structure of optical fibre cables
    • 3.1 Coated optical fibres
      • 3.1.1 Primary coating of fibres
      • 3.1.2 Secondary protection of fibres
      • 3.1.3 Fibre identification
      • 3.1.4 Optical fibre unit
    • 3.2 Optical cable core structures
      • 3.2.1 Single unit cables
      • 3.2.2 Multiple unit cables
      • 3.2.3 Protection against moisture
    • 3.3 Strength members
    • 3.4 Cable sheath and armour
      • 3.4.1 Cable sheath types
      • 3.4.2 Metal/plastic sheath with metallic tapes or metallic layer
      • 3.4.3 Plastic sheath only
      • 3.4.4 Plastic sheath with strength members
      • 3.4.5 Plastic sheath with embedded strength members with a metallic tape
      • 3.4.6 Cable sheath with armour
      • 3.4.7 Sheath with identification
  • 4 Structure of optical fibre cables for specific installations
    • 4.1 Optical fibre cables for aerial applications
      • 4.1.1 Environmental conditions
      • 4.1.2 Cable construction
    • 4.2 Marinized terrestrial cables
      • 4.2.1 Mechanical and environmental characteristics
      • 4.2.2 Cable structure
    • 4.3 Submarine cables
      • 4.3.1 Mechanical and environmental characteristics
      • 4.3.2 Cable structure
    • 4.4 Optical fibre cables for sewer duct applications
      • 4.4.1 Environmental conditions
      • 4.4.2 Cable structure
    • 4.5 Optical fibre cables for multidwelling FTTH indoor applications: riser cable
      • 4.5.1 Environmental conditions
      • 4.5.2 Cable structure
  • 5 Cable tests
• CHAPTER 3 – OPTICAL CABLE INSTALLATION
  • Introduction
  • 1 Cable installation methods
    • 1.1 Installation of cables in underground ducts
      • 1.1.1 Route considerations
      • 1.1.2 Cable installation tension prediction for cables pulled into ducts
      • 1.1.3 Cable overload protection methods
      • 1.1.4 Winching equipment and ropes
      • 1.1.5 Guiding systems and cable bending
      • 1.1.6 Cable friction and lubrication
      • 1.1.7 Cable handling methods to maximize installed lengths by pulling
      • 1.1.8 Air-assisted cable installation
      • 1.1.9 Water pumping system
      • 1.1.10 Jointing length allowance
    • 1.2 Installation of optical cables with the trenchless technique
      • 1.2.1 Trenchless techniques and their applications
    • 1.3 Installation of optical cables with the mini-trench technique
      • 1.3.1 Traditional mini-trench (10 ? 30 cm)
      • 1.3.2 The enhanced mini-trench
    • 1.4 Installation of optical cables with the micro-trench technique
      • 1.4.1 Micro-trench preparation and duct/cable laying
    • 1.5 Installation of aerial cables
      • 1.5.1 Installation methods
      • 1.5.2 Cable protection methods
      • 1.5.3 Winching and guiding systems
      • 1.5.4 Methods to maximize lengths
      • 1.5.5 Jointing length allowance
      • 1.5.6 In-service considerations
    • 1.6 Installation of buried cables
      • 1.6.1 Installation methods
      • 1.6.2 Cable guiding and protection
      • 1.6.3 Methods to maximize lengths
      • 1.6.4 Jointing length allowance
    • 1.7 Installation of cables in tunnels and on bridges
    • 1.8 Installation of optical fibre ground wire (OPGW) cable
    • 1.9 Installation of optical cables along railways
      • 1.9.1 Duct installation
      • 1.9.2 Directly buried cable installation
      • 1.9.3 Aerial installation
      • 1.9.4 Cable installation along existing railway poles
      • 1.9.5 Particular cases
      • 1.9.6 Splice points along railways
    • 1.10 Installation of cables in sewer ducts
      • 1.10.1 Sewer assessment
      • 1.10.2 Installation in non-man-accessible sewers
      • 1.10.3 Installation in man-accessible sewers
      • 1.10.4 Installation of special armoured optical cables into the sewer ducts
      • 1.10.5 Guidelines for the selection of the most appropriate installation method
      • 1.10.6 Pressure washing and finishing brush
      • 1.10.7 Safety
    • 1.11 Installation of marinized and submarine optical cables
      • 1.11.1 Survey and route planning
      • 1.11.2 Characteristics of vessels
      • 1.11.3 Installation
      • 1.11.4 Controls after the laying
    • 1.12 Installation of indoor cables
  • 2 Safety, in-service protection and location
    • 2.1 Safety
    • 2.2 In-service protection
    • 2.3 Location
• CHAPTER 4 – OPTICAL SPLICES, CONNECTORS AND PASSIVE NODES
  • Introduction
  • 1 Optical fibre splices
    • 1.1 Splice losses
    • 1.2 Fusion splices
    • 1.3 Mechanical splices
    • 1.4 Splicing procedure steps
      • 1.4.1 Fibre preparation
      • 1.4.2 Splicing
  • 2 Optical connectors
    • 2.1 Types and configurations
      • 2.1.1 Fibre types
      • 2.1.2 Cable types
      • 2.1.3 Fibre alignment system
      • 2.1.4 Fibre end face finish
      • 2.1.5 Coupling mechanism
      • 2.1.6 Number of jointed fibres
    • 2.2 Connector performance parameters
  • 3 Passive node elements for fibre optical networks
    • 3.1 General requirements for passive node elements
    • 3.2 Fibre reconfiguration
    • 3.3 Application environments
  • 4 Optical distribution frames
    • 4.1 General characteristics
    • 4.2 Applications
    • 4.3 Design consideration
      • 4.3.1 Cable fibre and jumper management
      • 4.3.2 Connectors management
    • 4.4 Climatic considerations
    • 4.5 Mechanical considerations
  • 5 Fibre closures and fibre organizers
    • 5.1 Optical closures
      • 5.1.1 Design characteristics of optical closures
    • 5.2 Fibre organizers
      • 5.2.1 Design of the organizer system
      • 5.2.2 Characteristics of fibre organizers
      • 5.2.3 Configurations of optical fibre organizers
  • 6 Passive node elements for marinized and submarine optical cables
    • 6.1 Marinized cables
      • 6.1.1 Fibre splices
      • 6.1.2 Fibre organizers
      • 6.1.3 Closures
      • 6.1.4 Beach closures
    • 6.2 Submarine cables
      • 6.2.1 The submarine repeater housing
      • 6.2.2 The branching unit
• CHAPTER 5 – ACTIVE AND PASSIVE COMPONENTS / SUBSYSTEMS
  • Introduction
  • 1 Optical Transmitters
    • 1.1 Light-emitting diodes
    • 1.2 Semiconductor Lasers
      • 1.2.1 Types of lasers
    • 1.3 Optical sources reliability
    • 1.4 Optical modulators
  • 2 Optical receivers
  • 3 Optical amplifiers
    • 3.1 Application of optical amplifiers
      • 3.1.1 Booster amplifier
      • 3.1.2 Pre-amplifier
      • 3.1.3 Line amplifier
      • 3.1.4 Optically amplified transmitter
      • 3.1.5 Optically amplified receiver
    • 3.2 Types of optical amplifiers
      • 3.2.1 EDFA-type amplifiers
      • 3.2.2 SOA type amplifiers
      • 3.2.3 Raman amplifiers
  • 4 Adaptive chromatic dispersion compensators
    • 4.1 ADC applications
    • 4.2 ADCs reference configurations
  • 5 PMD compensators
  • 6 OADMs and ROADMs
  • 7 Photonic Cross-Connects
  • 8 Optical wavelength MUX/DMUX
  • 9 Regenerators and transponders
    • 9.1 3R regenerators
    • 9.2 Transponders
  • 10 Optical attenuators
  • 11 Optical branching devices including PON splitters
• CHAPTER 6 – OPTICAL SYSTEMS: ITU-T CRITERIA FOR SPECIFICATIONS
  • Introduction
  • 1 Classification of the optical systems
    • 1.1 Operating wavelength range
    • 1.2 Single-channel and multichannel system interfaces
    • 1.3 Channel spacing in WDM systems
    • 1.4 Categories of WDM systems
    • 1.5 Number of channels in WDM systems
      • 1.5.1 Number of channels in DWDM systems
      • 1.5.2 Number of channels in CWDM systems
    • 1.6 Bit rates and client classes
    • 1.7 Unidirectional and bidirectional systems
    • 1.8 Linear and ring configurations
    • 1.9 Fibre type
    • 1.10 Line coding
    • 1.11 Bit Error Ratio
    • 1.12 The Q-factor
    • 1.13 Forward Error Correction
      • 1.13.1 In-band FEC in SDH systems
      • 1.13.2 Out-of-band FEC in optical transport networks (OTNs)
      • 1.13.3 Coding gain and net coding gain
      • 1.13.4 Theoretical NCG bounds for some non-standard out-of-band FECs
  • 2 Objectives for standardizing optical systems
    • 2.1 Transversely compatible and longitudinally compatible optical interfaces
    • 2.2 Joint engineering
    • 2.3 Specification method: black-box and black-link
    • 2.4 Application codes
  • 3 Parameters for the specification of the optical interfaces
    • 3.1 Interface at point MPI-S and MPI-SM
      • 3.1.1 Output power
      • 3.1.2 Source type
      • 3.1.3 Transmitter minimum (channel) extinction ratio
      • 3.1.4 Eye diagram and eye mask
    • 3.2 Optical path (single span MPI-S to MPI-R or MPI-SM to MPI-RM)
      • 3.2.1 Attenuation
      • 3.2.2 Maximum chromatic dispersion at upper and lower wavelength limit
      • 3.2.3 Reflections
      • 3.2.4 Maximum differential group delay
    • 3.3 Interface at point MPI-RM and MPI-R
      • 3.3.1 Input power
      • 3.3.2 Minimum receiver sensitivity
      • 3.3.3 Minimum equivalent sensitivity
      • 3.3.4 Maximum optical path penalty
  • 4 Example of an optical interface specification
• CHAPTER 7 – OPTICAL SYSTEMS DESIGN
  • Introduction
  • 1 “Worst case” design for systems without line amplifiers
    • 1.1 Relevant parameters for power budget
    • 1.2 Chromatic dispersion penalty
      • 1.2.1 Relation between maximum chromatic dispersion and power penalty
      • 1.2.2 Relation between chromatic dispersion coefficient and link length
      • 1.2.3 Relation between maximum chromatic dispersion and line code
    • 1.3 DGD power penalty
      • 1.3.1 The statistical distribution of PMD
      • 1.3.2 The path penalty due to PMD
    • 1.4 Penalty due to reflections
      • 1.4.1 Minimum optical return loss at MPI-S
      • 1.4.2 Maximum discrete reflectance between MPI-S and MPI-R
  • 2 “Worst case” design for system with optical line amplifiers
    • 2.1 Relevant parameters for Optical Power Budget
    • 2.2 Limit to the transmission distance due to optical signal to noise ratio
    • 2.3 Limit to the transmission distance due to maximum differential group delay
    • 2.4 Penalty due to residual chromatic dispersion after accommodation
    • 2.5 Optical crosstalk penalty
      • 2.5.1 Definition of terms
      • 2.5.2 Inter-channel crosstalk penalty
      • 2.5.3 Interferometric crosstalk penalty
    • 2.6 Penalty due to reflections
    • 2.7 Penalty due to fibre non linearities
      • 2.7.1 Stimulated Brillouin Scattering
      • 2.7.2 Stimulated Raman scattering
      • 2.7.3 Self phase modulation
      • 2.7.4 Cross phase modulation
      • 2.7.5 Four-wave mixing
      • 2.7.6 Examples of maximum power threshold due to non-linear effects
  • 3 Forward error correction impact on optical system design
    • 3.1 Relaxation of transmitter and/or receiver characteristics
    • 3.2 Reduction of output power levels to save pump power
    • 3.3 Reduction in power levels to avoid non-linearity
    • 3.4 Increase in maximum span attenuation
    • 3.5 Increase in maximum number of spans for a long-haul system
    • 3.6 Increase in channel count for high-capacity systems
  • 4 Reliability consideration (for submarine optical systems)
    • 4.1 Reliability requirement
    • 4.2 Internal fault
      • 4.2.1 Failure rate analysis
      • 4.2.2 Submerged section reliability
    • 4.3 External fault
  • Annex A – Statistical design for systems with line amplifiers
    • A.1 Generic methodology for the statistical design
    • A.2 System outage probability
    • A.3 Probability threshold for system acceptance
    • A.4 Design flow chart
    • A.5 Statistical design of loss
    • A.6 Statistical design of chromatic dispersion
    • A.7 Statistical design of DGD
  • Annex B – Example of design considerations for DWDM systems
    • B.1 Enabling technologies and their limits
      • B.1.1 ASE noise
      • B.1.2 PMD
    • B.2 Other effects that limit transmission distance
      • B.2.1 Accumulated gain ripples from EDFA cascading and tilt due to stimulated Raman effects
      • B.2.2 Non-uniform span length
      • B.2.3 Optical non-linearity
      • B.2.4 Residual dispersion and dispersion tolerance
      • B.2.5 Accumulated PDL effects
    • B.3 Techniques used to mitigate impairments
      • B.3.1 Dynamic gain equalization
      • B.3.2 Modulation format
      • B.3.3 Number of optical channels and their spacing
      • B.3.4 Fibre types
      • B.3.5 Mixing different types of fibre within one span
    • B.4 Practical example
  • Annex C – Example of margin calculation for the submarine systems
    • C.1 Systems margins
      • C.1.1 Impairments due to repair operations
      • C.1.2 Impairments due to equipments ageing
      • C.1.3 Impairments due to the foreseen faults of some components
      • C.1.4 Unallocated margin
• CHAPTER 8 – OPTICAL SYSTEMS APPLICATIONS
  • Introduction
  • 1 The Optical transport network
  • 2 Optical network topologies
    • 2.1 Point-to-point links
    • 2.2 Bus structures
    • 2.3 Point-to-multipoint links
  • 3 Classification of optical systems applications
  • 4 Intra-office systems
  • 5 Metro access optical networks
    • 5.1 CWDM optical systems
    • 5.2 DWDM optical systems
      • 5.2.1 Single-channel and DWDM optical systems (black-box approach)
      • 5.2.2 DWDM optical systems (black-link approach)
  • 6 Metro core / regional optical networks
  • 7 Backbone / long haul networks
  • 8 Repeaterless and repeatered optical fibre submarine systems
    • 8.1 Submarine systems topology
      • 8.1.1 Point to point
      • 8.1.2 Star
      • 8.1.3 Branched star
      • 8.1.4 Trunk and Branch
      • 8.1.5 Festoon
      • 8.1.6 Ring
      • 8.1.7 Branched Ring
    • 8.2 Repeatered optical submarine systems
      • 8.2.1 System configuration
    • 8.3 Repeaterless optical submarine systems
    • 8.4 System reliability
    • 8.5 System upgradability
    • 8.6 Optical Power Budget
  • 9 Wavelength switched optical networks (WSON) / all optical networks (AON)
    • 9.1 Impact of cascaded ONEs on line system OSNR
    • 9.2 Example of calculation of the impact of cascaded ONEs on line system OSNR
• CHAPTER 9 – OPTICAL SYSTEM APPLICATIONS IN PASSIVE OPTICAL NETWORKS
  • Introduction
  • 1 Local access network architecture
    • 1.1 FTTC and FTTCab scenarios
    • 1.2 FTTB scenario
    • 1.3 FTTH scenario
  • 2 ODN Architectures
    • 2.1 Point-to-point ODN architecture
    • 2.2 Point-to-multipoint ODN architecture
  • 3 Physical ODN configuration
    • 3.1 Optical branching component in the central office
    • 3.2 Optical branching component in outside plant
    • 3.3 Optical branching component in the customer's building
  • 4 Evolutionary steps of ODNs
    • 4.1 Initial stage
    • 4.2 Growth stage
    • 4.3 Mature stage
    • 4.4 Final stage
  • 5 Upgrading a PON
  • 6 Passive optical components used in an ODN
    • 6.1 Optical fibre cable
    • 6.2 Optical fibre joints
    • 6.3 Optical branching components
      • 6.3.1 Optical branching components without wavelength multiplexer and demultiplexer
      • 6.3.2 Optical branching components with wavelength multiplexer and demultiplexer
      • 6.3.3 Other characteristics of the optical branching components
    • 6.4 Other passive optical components
  • 7 ODN model loss calculations
  • 8 General characteristics of G-PON systems
  • 9 Characteristics of the ODN physical layer
  • 10 G-PON systems: physical media dependent (PMD) layer specifications
  • 11 G-PON systems specification
    • 11.1 2488 Gbit/s downstream, 1244 Gbit/s upstream G-PON
    • 11.2 Attenuation class B+ for the 2488 Gbit/s downstream, 1244 Gbit/s upstream G-PON
    • 11.3 Attenuation class C+ for the 2488 Gbit/s downstream, 1244 Gbit/s upstream G-PON
  • 12 Example of a G-PON system power budget
  • 13 Operating wavelengths
    • 13.1 Basic band
    • 13.2 Enhanced wavelength allocation plan
    • 13.3 G-PON reference diagrams with enhanced bands
  • 14 Wavelength for maintenance
  • 15 Reach extension of the G-PON
    • 15.1 Optical extension schemes and architectures
    • 15.2 Specifications for mid-span extenders
• CHAPTER 10 – MAINTENANCE, SAFETY AND ENVIRONMENTAL ASPECTS
  • Introduction
  • 1 Maintenance aspects
    • 1.1 Maintenance aspects of optical fibres
      • 1.1.1 Fundamental requirements for a maintenance support system
      • 1.1.2 Testing and maintaining principle
      • 1.1.3 Wavelengths for maintenance
      • 1.1.4 In-service fibre line testing
      • 1.1.5 General support system architecture
      • 1.1.6 Main features of the support system
      • 1.1.7 Optical fibre cable maintenance system for optical fibre cable carrying high total optical power
    • 1.2 Optical fibre and cable restoration
      • 1.2.1 Restoration methods
      • 1.2.2 Restoration procedures
    • 1.3 Maintenance of underground plastic ducts
    • 1.4 Maintenance of cable tunnels
      • 1.4.1 Inspection
      • 1.4.2 Inspection technologies
    • 1.5 Optical monitoring of optical DWDM systems
      • 1.5.1 Signal monitoring
      • 1.5.2 Optical monitoring parameters
      • 1.5.3 Applications
    • 1.6 Maintenance aspects of submarine optical systems
      • 1.6.1 Routine maintenance
      • 1.6.2 Fault localization
      • 1.6.3 Fault repair
  • 2 Safety and environmental aspects
    • 2.1 Safety aspects for optical power
      • 2.1.1 Safe working conditions on optical interfaces
      • 2.1.2 Best practices for optical power safety
    • 2.2 Fire hazards
      • 2.2.1 Fire protection
      • 2.2.2 Fire detection and alarm systems, detector and sounder devices
      • 2.2.3 Equipment and installation for fire extinction
    • 2.3 Environmental aspects
      • 2.3.1 Life-cycle analysis
• ABBREVIATIONS AND ACRONYMS