استعمال الاتصالات/تكنولوجيا المعلومات والاتصالات من أجل الحد من مخاطر الكوارث وإدارتها

التقرير النهائي للمسألة 5/2 لقطاع تنمية الاتصالات

فترة الدراسة 2018-2021

استعمال الاتصالات/تكنولوجيا المعلومات والاتصالات من أجل الحد من مخاطر الكوارث وإدارتها: التقرير النهائي للمسألة 5/2 لقطاع تنمية الاتصالات لفترة الدراسة 2021-2018

ISBN 978-92-61-34166-4 (النسخة الإلكترونية)
ISBN 978-92-61-34176-3 (نسخة EPUB)
ISBN 978-92-61-34186-2 (نسخة Mobi)

© الاتحاد الدولي للاتصالات 2021

International Telecommunication Union, Place des Nations, CH-1211 Geneva, Switzerland

بعض الحقوق محفوظة. هذا العمل متاح للجمهور من خلال رخصة المشاع الإبداعي للمنظمات الحكومية الدولية
Creative Commons Attribution-Non-Commercial-Share Alike 3.0 IGO license (CC BY-NC-SA 3.0 IGO).

وبموجب شروط هذه الرخصة، يمكنك نسخ هذا العمل وإعادة توزيعه وتكييفه لأغراض غير تجارية، على أن يُقتبس العمل على النحو الصحيح كما هو مبين أدناه. وأيّاً كان استخدام هذا العمل، ينبغي عدم الإيحاء بأن الاتحاد الدولي للاتصالات يدعم أي منظمة أو منتجات أو خدمات محددة. ولا يُسمح باستخدام اسم الاتحاد أو شعاره على نحو غير مرخص به. وإذا قمت بتكييف العمل، فسيتعين عليك استصدار رخصة لعملك في إطار الرخصة Creative Commons نفسها أو ما يكافئها. وإذا أنتجت ترجمة لهذا العمل، فينبغي لك إضافة إخلاء المسؤولية التالي إلى جانب الاقتباس المقترح: "هذه الترجمة غير صادرة عن الاتحاد الدولي للاتصالات (ITU). والاتحاد غير مسؤول عن محتوى هذه الترجمة أو دقتها. والنسخة الإنكليزية الأصلية هي النسخة الملزِمة والمعتمدة". للحصول على مزيد من المعلومات، يرجى زيارة الموقع التالي: https:// creativecommons .org/ licenses/ by -nc -sa/ 3 .0/ igo/

اقتباس مقترح. استعمال الاتصالات/تكنولوجيا المعلومات والاتصالات من أجل الحد من مخاطر الكوارث وإدارتها: التقرير النهائي بشأن المسألة 5/2 لقطاع تنمية الاتصالات لفترة الدراسة  2021-2018. جنيف: الاتحاد الدولي للاتصالات، 2021. Licence: CC BY-NC-SA 3.0 IGO.

مواد صادرة عن أطراف ثالثة. إذا أردت إعادة استخدام مواد من هذا العمل منسوبة إلى طرف ثالث، مثل الجداول أو الأشكال أو الصور، تقع عليك مسؤولية تحديد إذا ما كان هناك ضرورة للحصول على إذن لإعادة الاستخدام، وعليك الحصول على هذا الإذن من صاحب حق التأليف والنشر. وتقع على عاتق المستخدم وحده المسؤولية عن المطالبات الناتجة عن أي مخالفة تتعلق بمواد في هذا العمل يملكها طرف ثالث.

إخلاء مسؤولية. التسميات المستخدمة في هذا المنشور وطريقة عرض المواد فيه لا تعني بأي حال من الأحوال التعبير عن أي رأي من جانب الاتحاد الدولي للاتصالات أو من جانب أمانة الاتحاد فيما يتعلق بالوضع القانوني لأيٍّ من البلدان أو الأقاليم أو المدن أو المناطق أو لسلطاتها، أو فيما يتعلق بتعيين حدودها أو تخومها.

والإشارة إلى شركات محددة أو منتجات صناعية معينة لا تعني أن الاتحاد الدولي للاتصالات يدعمها أو يوصي بها تفضيلاً لها على غيرها من الشركات والمنتجات المماثلة لها التي لم يشر إليها. عدا ما يتعلق بالخطأ والسهو، يشار إلى المنتجات المسجلة الملكية بالأحرف الأولية من أسمائها بالإنكليزية.

اتخذ الاتحاد الدولي للاتصالات جميع الاحتياطات المعقولة للتحقق من المعلومات الواردة في هذا المنشور. ومع ذلك، توزَّع المواد المنشورة دون أي ضمان من أي نوع، سواء كان صريحاً أو ضمنياً. وتقع مسؤولية تفسير المواد واستعمالها على عاتق القارئ. والاتحاد غير مسؤول بأي حال من الأحوال عن الأضرار الناتجة عن استخدامها.

مرجع صورة الغلاف: Shutterstock

شكر وتقدير

تمثل لجان الدراسات لقطاع تنمية الاتصالات بالاتحاد الدولي للاتصالات (ITU-D) منصة محايدة يلتقي في إطارها خبراء من الحكومات ومن دوائر الصناعة ومنظمات الاتصالات والهيئات الأكاديمية من جميع أنحاء العالم لإنتاج الأدوات والموارد العملية لمعالجة قضايا التنمية. ولهذا الغرض، تضطلع لجنتا دراسات قطاع تنمية الاتصالات بمسؤولية إعداد التقارير والمبادئ التوجيهية والتوصيات على أساس المدخلات الواردة من الأعضاء. ويُتخذ القرار كل أربع سنوات في المؤتمر العالمي لتنمية الاتصالات (WTDC) فيما يتعلق بالمسائل التي ستخضع للدراسة. ووافق أعضاء الاتحاد المشاركون في المؤتمر العالمي لتنمية الاتصالات لعام 2017 (WTDC-17) في بوينس آيرس في أكتوبر 2017 على أن تتناول لجنة الدراسات 2 في الفترة 2018-2021 سبع مسائل ضمن النطاق العام بشأن "خدمات وتطبيقات تكنولوجيا المعلومات والاتصالات من أجل تعزيز التنمية المستدامة."

وأُعدّ هذا التقرير استجابة للمسألة 5/2: استعمال الاتصالات/تكنولوجيا المعلومات والاتصالات من أجل الحد من مخاطر الكوارث وإدارتها بتوجيه عام وتنسيق من جانب فريق إدارة لجنة الدراسات 2 لقطاع تنمية الاتصالات بقيادة السيد أحمد رضا شرفات (جمهورية إيران الإسلامية)، بصفته الرئيس، بمساعدة نواب الرئيس التالية أسماؤهم: السيد ناصر المرزوقي (الإمارات العربية المتحدة) (استقال في 2018)؛ والسيد عبد العزيز الزرعوني (الإمارات العربية المتحدة)؛ والسيد فيليبي ميغيل أنطونيس باتيستا (البرتغال) (استقال في 2019)؛ والسيدة نورا عبد الله حسن بشير (السودان)؛ والسيدة ماريا بولشاكوفا (الاتحاد الروسي)؛ والسيدة سيلينا ديلغادو كاستيون (نيكاراغوا)؛ والسيد ياكوف غاس (الاتحاد الروسي) (استقال في 2020)؛ والسيد أناندا راج كانال (جمهورية نيبال)؛ السيد رونالد ياو كودوزيا (غانا)؛ والسيد توليبجون أولتينوفيتش ميرزاكولوف (أوزبكستان)؛ والسيدة ألينا مودان (رومانيا)؛ والسيد هنري شوكوودوميمي نكيمادو (نيجيريا)؛ والسيدة كي وانغ (الصين)؛ والسيد دومينيك فورغيس (فرنسا).

وأُعد هذا التقرير تحت قيادة المقررين المشاركين المعنيين بالمسألة 5/2، السيد سانجيف بانزال (الهند)؛ والسيد جوزيف بورتون (الولايات المتحدة) (استقال في 2020)؛ والسيدة كيلي أوكيف (الولايات المتحدة)، وبالتعاون مع نواب المقررين التالية أسماؤهم: السيد باراغ أغراوال (الهند)، والسيد هيديو إماناكا (اليابان)؛ والسيد خوسيه جان باتيست (هايتي)؛ والسيد عبد الكريم أيوبو أولويدي (نيجيريا).

ونتقدم بشكر خاص لمنسقي الفصول لتفانيهم ودعمهم وخبرتهم.

وأُعدّت هذا التقرير بدعم من مسؤولي الاتصال في مكتب تنمية الاتصالات، والمحررين، وكذلك فريق إنتاج المنشورات وأمانة لجان الدراسات التابعة لقطاع تنمية الاتصالات.

الملخص التنفيذي

يسرّ لجنة الدراسات 2 لقطاع تنمية الاتصالات (ITU-D) أن تقدم التقرير النهائي للمسألة 5/2 بشأن ("استعمال الاتصالات/تكنولوجيا المعلومات والاتصالات من أجل الحد من مخاطر الكوارث وإدارتها"). ويستند التقرير إلى مساهمات الدول الأعضاء وأعضاء القطاعات وإلى المناقشات التفاعلية التي دارت بينهم خلال فترة الدراسة 2021-2018. ويقدم التقرير نظرة عامة عن الاتصالات/تكنولوجيا المعلومات والاتصالات (ICT) المستعملة للحد من مخاطر الكوارث وإدارتها، ويصف مجموعة من التكنولوجيات ودراسات الحالة المتعلقة بالسياسات العامة المقدمة من الإدارات والمنظمات فيما يتعلق باستعمال تكنولوجيا المعلومات والاتصالات خلال جميع مراحل الكوارث.

ويمكن أن يكون للكوارث، سواء كانت طبيعية أو من صنع الإنسان، أثر سلبي على المجتمعات، فتتسبب في الإخلال بالسير العادي للحياة الاجتماعية والاقتصادية. ويجب على السلطات والأشخاص التفاعل فوراً لمساعدة المتضررين واستعادة حدود مقبولة من الرفاه وفرص الحياة. ويمكن أن يؤدي اجتماع الأخطار ومظاهر الضعف وعدم القدرة على الحد من التأثيرات السلبية المحتملة للمخاطر إلى وضع كارثي. ونظراً لعدم إمكانية التنبؤ بالعديد من الكوارث، فإن التأهب لها وإدارة مخاطرها أمران حاسمان لإنقاذ الأرواح وحماية الممتلكات. ومن المهم أيضاً بحث إدارة المخاطر (أي التخفيف من الأضرار، والتأهب لتحمل الأضرار، والإنذار المبكر/التنبؤ) قبل وقوع الكارثة. ومن الممكن، بل من المؤكد، أن يساهم التخطيط والتأهب الفعالان في إنقاذ الأرواح.

وتؤدي الاتصالات وتكنولوجيا المعلومات والاتصالات دوراً محورياً في الوقاية من الكوارث والتخفيف من آثارها وفي إدارتها. وتتطلب الإدارة الفعالة للكوارث التبادل الفعال وفي الوقت المناسب للمعلومات بين مختلف الجهات المعنية، ولهذا الغرض، تعتبر تكنولوجيا المعلومات والاتصالات أدوات أساسية. فهي مصدر دعم في جميع مراحل الكوارث بما يشمل التنبؤ والإنذار المبكر. والواقع أن التقنيات الفعالة للحد من المخاطر تُرصد بشكل كبير في جميع أنحاء العالم للحد من الخسائر في الأرواح والممتلكات عند وقوع الكوارث.

وخلال فترة الدراسة 2021-2018، ركزت المداولات بشأن المسألة 5/2 على استعمال الاتصالات/تكنولوجيا المعلومات والاتصالات من أجل الحد من مخاطر الكوارث وإدارتها. وتؤدي السياسات الفعالة دوراً أساسياً في تصميم الخطط الوطنية للاتصالات في حالات الطوارئ (NETP) وتنفيذها بشكل عام. ووفقاً لذلك، ينبغي أن تكون البيئة السياساتية والتنظيمية مهيأة لتمكين وتيسير التأهب والاستجابة بفعالية. وينبغي توفير سياسات لنشر أنظمة الاتصالات في حالات الطوارئ، والإنذار المبكر، واستمرارية الاتصالات، والاستجابة بمزيد من الفعالية. وينبغي أن تُصمَّم هذه السياسات بمراعاة إمكانية النفاذ إلى الاتصالات، وتكون بالتالي شاملة وتغطي جميع شرائح المجتمع. وبفضل التطور السريع للتكنولوجيات الجديدة، خاصة إنترنت الأشياء (IoT)، أضحى الاتصال من آلة إلى آلة (M2M) والذكاء الاصطناعي (AI) يسهِّلان العمل خلال جميع مراحل الكوارث - وسيستمران في ذلك. ويضفي هذا الأمر أهمية على مواكبة أحدث التطورات التي تشهدها تكنولوجيات الاتصالات في حالات الكوارث والتي يتناولها أحد فصول هذا التقرير.

تؤدي أنظمة الإنذار المبكر دوراً حاسماً في إعلام الناس بالكوارث الوشيكة، ولذلك ينبغي نشرها في المناطق المعرضة للكوارث. ويكتسي إرسال المعلومات ونشرها بفعالية أهمية قبل وقوع الكارثة وأثناءه وبعده، وتلقت ورشة عمل عُقدت خلال فترة الدراسة بشأن أنظمة الإنذار المبكر العديد من المدخلات الجيدة بشأن الموضوع، ولذا فإنها تشكل موضوع أحد فصول هذا التقرير.

ويشمل التأهب للكوارث تدريبات وتمرينات بدءاً من التمرينات النظرية وصولاً إلى التدريبات الكاملة. وتتطلب الثغرات التي تكشفها هذه التدريبات والتمرينات تحليلاً وإجراءات تصحيحية بحيث يتسنى للجميع، في حال وقوع كارثة فعلية، التصرف على النحو المتوقع وبطريقة متماسكة ومنسقة. ومن المهم الاستفادة من أفضل الممارسات التي اعتمدتها بلدان أخرى، ولا سيما تلك المعرضة للكوارث والتي استفادت من التجارب. ولذلك، يتضمن هذا التقرير دراسات حالة قدمتها بلدان مختلفة تصف فيها الدروس المستفادة. وعقب ورشة عمل مخصصة عقدت خلال فترة الدراسة بشأن التدريبات والتمرينات، جُمعت مداولات الخبراء في شكل مجموعة من المبادئ التوجيهية من أجل البلدان الجزرية الصغيرة والبلدان غير الساحلية، وأُدرجت في هذا التقرير.

وتقتضي إدارة أي كارثة توفير بيئة سياساتية تمكينية. وينبغي وضع السياسات بما يمكّن المرونة عند نشر معدات الاتصالات في حالات الطوارئ ويضمن الاستعمال الناجح للاتصالات وتكنولوجيا المعلومات والاتصالات من أجل التأهب للكوارث والتصدي لها. ومن المهم التأكد من مكونات البيئة السياساتية التمكينية، وهي بيئة تعمل على تحسين تأهب الاتصالات في حالات الطوارئ وصمود الشبكات والحد من مخاطر الكوارث وإدارة الكوارث.

وحاليا، يواجه العالم تحدياً كبيراً بسبب جائحة كوفيد-19 التي أدت إلى ملايين الوفيات وألحقت بالاقتصاد العالمي أضراراً بلغت تريليونات الدولارات. ولم يسلم أي بلد من الضرر. ونظرت حلقة دراسية إلكترونية بشأن البيئة السياساتية التمكينية لإدارة الكوارث، بما في ذلك عمليات التصدي للجوائح، في العمليات المجدية والفعالة للتصدي للجائحة وأتاحت للعديد من البلدان فرصة تقاسم خبراتها في مجال تحسين البنية التحتية لتكنولوجيا المعلومات والاتصالات وتعزيزها في وقت بدأ فيه الأشخاص العمل من المنزل وفرضت فيه البلدان شروط الإغلاق، فأدى ذلك إلى زيادة كبيرة في حركة الإنترنت. وتضمنت المساهمات الواردة رداً على المسألة 5/2 أيضاً وصفاً لعمليات التصدي الوطنية لجائحة كوفيد-19. وترد التفاصيل ذات الصلة في الفصل 2 من هذا التقرير.

وباختصار، يتضمن هذا التقرير سبعة فصول، على النحو التالي:

‒ الفصل 1 يحدد هذا الفصل نطاق التقرير ويقدم لمحة عامة موجزة عن دور الاتصالات/تكنولوجيا المعلومات والاتصالات في دورة إدارة الكوارث بوجه عام؛

‒ الفصل 2 يقدم هذا الفصل لمحة عامة شاملة عن السياسات والبيئة التنظيمية التمكينية، بما في ذلك السياسات المتعلقة بنشر أنظمة الاتصالات في حالات الطوارئ وأنظمة الإنذار المبكر، لدعم استمرارية الاتصالات وتمكين الاستجابات بمزيد من الفعالية؛

‒ الفصل 3 يناقش هذا الفصل تكنولوجيات الاتصالات في حالات الطوارئ؛

‒ الفصل 4 يناقش هذا الفصل أنظمة الإنذار والتنبيه المبكرين واستعمال تكنولوجيا المعلومات والاتصالات في التخطيط لها؛ ويناقش أيضاً نشر أنظمة الإنذار المبكر للحد من مخاطر الكوارث، وأنظمة بث الإنذارات في حالات الطوارئ، وأنظمة المعلومات والإغاثة في حالات الكوارث، وتكنولوجيات صمود الشبكات؛

‒ الفصل 5 يتضمن هذا الفصل ملخصاً للمبادئ التوجيهية المتعلقة بإعداد وإجراء تمرينات وتدريبات على الاتصالات في حالات الكوارث؛

‒ الفصل 6 يعرض هذا الفصل مجموعة متنوعة من دراسات الحالة القطرية والصناعية استناداً إلى مساهمات أعضاء قطاع تنمية الاتصالات بالاتحاد؛

‒ الفصل 7 يناقش هذا الفصل أفضل الممارسات والدروس المستفادة المحددة، إلى جانب المبادئ التوجيهية المقترحة خلال فترة الدراسة.

الاختصارات والأسماء المختصرة

2G/3G/4G/5G

الجيل الثاني/الثالث/الرابع/الخامس من الشبكات المتنقلة

(second/third/fourth/fifth generation of mobile networks)

AI

الذكاء الاصطناعي

(Artificial intelligence)

BDT

مكتب تنمية الاتصالات بالاتحاد الدولي للاتصالات

(ITU Telecommunication Development Bureau)

BGAN

الشبكات العالمية عريضة النطاق

(broadband global area networks)

CAP

بروتوكول التنبيه المشترك

(Common Alerting Protocol)

COVID-19

جائحة فيروس كورونا 2019

(coronavirus disease 2019)

ETC

تكتل اتصالات الطوارئ التابع للأمم المتحدة

(UN Emergency Telecommunications Cluster)

FEMA

الوكالة الفيدرالية لإدارة الطوارئ في الولايات المتحدة

(United States Federal Emergency Management Agency)

GIS

نظام المعلومات الجغرافية

(Geographic Information System)

GSMA

رابطة النظام العالمي للاتصالات المتنقلة

(GSM Association)

ICT

تكنولوجيا المعلومات والاتصالات

(information and communication technology)

IoT

إنترنت الأشياء

(Internet of Things)

ITU

الاتحاد الدولي للاتصالات

(International Telecommunication Union)

ITU-D

قطاع تنمية الاتصالات بالاتحاد

(ITU Telecommunication Development Sector)

ITU-R

قطاع الاتصالات الراديوية بالاتحاد

(ITU Radiocommunication Sector)

ITU-T

قطاع تقييس الاتصالات بالاتحاد

(ITU Telecommunication Standardization Sector)

IPAWS

النظام العام المتكامل للتنبيه والإنذار

(Integrated Public Alert & Warning System)

IPAWS-OPEN

المنصة المفتوحة للنظام العام المتكامل للتنبيه والإنذار من أجل شبكات الطوارئ

(Integrated Public Alert & Warning System Open Platform for Emergency Networks)

LDC

أقل البلدان نمواً

(least developed country)

M2M

من آلة إلى آلة

(machine-to-machine)

MDRU

وحدة موارد تكنولوجيا المعلومات والاتصالات القابلة للنقل والنشر

(Moveable and deployable ICT resource unit)

MHEWS

نظام الإنذار المبكر بالأخطار المتعددة

(multi-hazard early-warning system)

ML

التعلم الآلي

(machine learning)

NETP

خطة وطنية للاتصالات في حالات الطوارئ

(national emergency telecommunication plan)

NGO

منظمة غير حكومية

(non-governmental organization)

NOAA

الإدارة الوطنية للمحيطات والغلاف الجوي (الولايات المتحدة)

(National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (United States))

OSCAR

أداة المنظمة العالمية للأرصاد الجوية لتحليل واستعراض قدرات أنظمة الرصد

(WMO Observing Systems Capability Analysis and Review Tool)

PPDR

حماية الجمهور والإغاثة في حالات الكوارث

(public protection and disaster relief)

SDG

أهداف التنمية المستدامة للأمم المتحدة

(UN Sustainable Development Goals)

SIDS

الدول الجزرية الصغيرة النامية

(small island developing States)

SNS

خدمات الشبكات الاجتماعية

(social networking services)

UAV

مركبة جوية غير مأهولة

(unmanned aerial vehicle)

UNISDR

استراتيجية الأمم المتحدة الدولية للحد من الكوارث

(United Nations International Strategy for Disaster Reduction)

UNITAR

معهد الأمم المتحدة للتدريب والبحث

(United Nations Institute for Training and Research)

UNOSAT

البرنامج التشغيلي للتطبيقات الساتلية التابع لمعهد الأمم المتحدة للتدريب والبحث

(UNITAR Operational Satellite Applications Programme)

UN-SPIDER

برنامج الأمم المتحدة للمعلومات الفضائية من أجل إدارة الكوارث والاستجابة في حالات الطوارئ

(United Nations Platform for Space-based Information for Disaster Management and Emergency Response)

VoLTE

نقل الصوت عبر تكنولوجيا التطور الطويل الأجل

(voice over LTE (Long-Term Evolution))

VSAT

مطراف ذو فتحات صغيرة جداً

(very small aperture terminal)

WFP

برنامج الأغذية العالمي

(World Food Programme)

WHO

منظمة الصحة العالمية

(World Health Organization)

WMO

منظمة الأرصاد العالمية

(World Meteorological Organization)

الفصل 1 - مقدمة

1.1 خلفية

شددت قرارات مختلفة صادرة عن مؤتمر المندوبين المفوضين للاتحاد والمؤتمر العالمي لتنمية الاتصالات (WTDC) والمؤتمر العالمي للاتصالات الراديوية (WRC)، إلى جانب تقارير صادرة عن قطاع تنمية الاتصالات (ITU-D) وقطاع تقييس الاتصالات (ITU-T) وقطاع الاتصالات الراديوية (ITU-R) بالاتحاد، على دور الاتصالات/تكنولوجيا المعلومات والاتصالات (ICT) في التأهب للكوارث والإنذار المبكر بها وعمليات الإنقاذ المتصلة بها والتخفيف من آثارها والإغاثة عند وقوعها والتصدي لها. وعلاوة على ذلك، فإن خطوط عمل القمة العالمية لمجتمع المعلومات (WSIS)، وأهداف التنمية المستدامة للأمم المتحدة (SDG)، وعدداً من قرارات استراتيجية الأمم المتحدة الدولية للحد من الكوارث (UNISDR)، وإطار سينداي للحد من مخاطر الكوارث للفترة 2030-2015، كلها تعترف بالحاجة إلى الحد من خطر الكوارث وإنشاء بنية تحتية مستدامة وقادرة على الصمود. وتؤدي تكنولوجيا المعلومات والاتصالات أيضاً دوراً في المساعدات الإنسانية وحماية الجمهور والإغاثة في حالات الكوارث.

وما برح الاتحاد، في معرض جهوده الرامية إلى تعزيز التأهب للكوارث الطبيعية ومن صنع الإنسان على الصعيدين الوطني والإقليمي، يدعو إلى استعمال الاتصالات/تكنولوجيا المعلومات والاتصالات لأغراض التأهب للكوارث والتخفيف من آثارها والتصدي لها والتعافي منها، ولتحقيق ذلك شجع التعاون وتقاسم الخبرات على الصعيدين الإقليمي والعالمي. وخلال فترة الدراسة السابقة ( 2017-2014)، بحث فريق المسألة 5/2 لقطاع تنمية الاتصالات جوانب متعددة لتخطيط الاتصالات في حالات الكوارث وإدارة الكوارث والتصدي لها. وخلال فترة الدراسة 2021-2018، انصب التركيز على استعمال الاتصالات/تكنولوجيا المعلومات والاتصالات في مجال الحد من مخاطر الكوارث وإدارتها.

2.1 الهدف من التقرير

الهدف من التقرير هو مواصلة بحث تطبيق الاتصالات/تكنولوجيا المعلومات والاتصالات من أجل التنبؤ بالكوارث والكشف عنها ورصدها والإنذار المبكر بها والتصدي لها والإغاثة عند وقوعها، بما في ذلك مراعاة أفضل الممارسات/المبادئ التوجيهية بشأن التنفيذ، ومن أجل ضمان بيئة تنظيمية تمكِّن من النشر والتنفيذ السريعين. ويتضمن التقرير الخبرات الوطنية ودراسات الحالة في مجال التأهب للكوارث والتخفيف من آثارها والتصدي لها ووضع الخطط الوطنية للاتصالات في حالات الكوارث؛ ويبحث المواضيع المشتركة بينها وأفضل الممارسات. ويغطي التقرير أربعة مجالات واسعة:

‒ البيئة السياساتية والتنظيمية التمكينية؛

‒ تكنولوجيات الاتصالات في حالات الكوارث؛

‒ أنظمة الإنذار والتنبيه المبكرين؛

‒ التدريبات والتمرينات.

ويحال إلى دراسات الحالة وأفضل الممارسات ذات الصلة في الفصول المعنية.

3.1 الاتصالات/تكنولوجيا المعلومات والاتصالات وإدارة الكوارث والإغاثة عند وقوعها

من المعروف جيداً أن الاتصالات/تكنولوجيا المعلومات والاتصالات تؤدي دوراً حيوياً في إدارة الكوارث والحد من مخاطرها. وإنقاذاً للأرواح والممتلكات أثناء وقوع الكارثة وبعده، فإن من الحاسم تصميم خطة وطنية للاتصالات في حالات الطوارئ (NETP)، ووضع أنظمة للإنذار المبكر والرصد باستعمال تكنولوجيا المعلومات والاتصالات، وضمان توافر معدات الاتصالات في حالات الطوارئ. وتؤدي الاتصالات/تكنولوجيا المعلومات والاتصالات دوراً في جميع مراحل الكشف عن الكوارث والحد من مخاطرها والإنذار المبكر بها ورصدها وعمليات الإنقاذ المتصلة بها وعمليات الإغاثة بعد وقوعها. ويكتسي النفاذ إلى المعلومات والاتصال في الوقت المناسب أهمية رئيسية في الحد من آثار الكوارث. فتكنولوجيات المعلومات والاتصالات والشبكات المختلفة (بما في ذلك الشبكات الساتلية والراديوية والمتنقلة، والإنترنت، وبرمجيات نظام المعلومات الجغرافية (GIS)، والأنظمة الساتلية لرصد الأرض، وإنترنت الأشياء (IoT)، والتحليل الآني باستخدام البيانات الضخمة، والحوسبة المتقدمة، وتكنولوجيات الاتصالات المتنقلة، ووسائل التواصل الاجتماعي) يمكنها جميعاً أن تساعد على تحسين القدرات المتعلقة بإدارة الكوارث والحد من إمكانية تأثر الأشخاص. ويساهم كل من المجتمع المحلي والحكومة والقطاع الخاص ووكالات إدارة الكوارث ومنظمات الأرصاد الجوية والمجتمع المدني والوكالات الإنسانية والمنظمات الدولية في تنسيق أنشطة إدارة الكوارث، مما يجعل الشراكات والتخطيط والتحضير المسبقين بمشاركة جميع أصحاب المصلحة أمراً أساسياً.

4.1 استعمال الاتصالات/تكنولوجيا المعلومات والاتصالات في جميع مراحل الكوارث

تمثل الاتصالات/تكنولوجيا المعلومات والاتصالات أدوات أساسية في جميع مراحل الكوارث، وتستفيد الإدارة الفعالة للكوارث من مجموعة متنوعة من وسائل الاتصالات/تكنولوجيا المعلومات والاتصالات. ومن الأمثلة على ذلك الاستشعار عن بُعد عبر السواتل وأنظمة الرادار والقياس عن بُعد والأرصاد الجوية، وتكنولوجيات الاستشعار الساتلية من آلة إلى آلة، من أجل إصدار الإنذارات المبكرة؛ والإذاعة والتكنولوجيا المتنقلة (الإذاعة الراديوية والتلفزيونية، وراديو الهواة، والمهاتفة الساتلية والمتنقلة، والإنترنت) لتوزيع التنبيهات؛ والمحطات القاعدة المؤقتة، والأنظمة المحمولة في حالات الطوارئ، وما إلى ذلك، للمساعدة في تقييم الأضرار وإرسال التعليمات إلى أفرقة البحث والإنقاذ والإغاثة وإعادة التأهيل، واستعادة الاتصالات والبنية التحتية الأخرى، بوسائل منها استعمال أجهزة من قبيل الهواتف الساتلية. وبالتالي، فإن الإدارة الشاملة للكوارث باستخدام تكنولوجيا المعلومات والاتصالات تتطلب بنية تحتية قوية وموثوقة للاتصالات قادرة على ضمان اتصالات فعالة قبل وقوع الكوارث وأثناءه وبعده، للتقليل إلى أدنى حد ممكن من الخسائر في الأرواح والممتلكات.

ومن الضروري، علاوة على ذلك، استخلاص دروس من كل كارثة والاستعداد بشكل أفضل للكارثة التي تليها. ولذلك، تُستعمل الاتصالات/تكنولوجيا المعلومات والاتصالات لجمع البيانات في أعقاب الكوارث الكبرى لأغراض منها تحليل استعمالها وأدائها. وتساهم الدروس المستفادة أيضاُ في التطورات التكنولوجية وتساعد في تحسين الخطط والعمليات المتعلقة بالكوارث.

5.1 البيئة السياساتية والتنظيمية التمكينية

تمثل البيئة السياساتية والتنظيمية التمكينية مكوناً هاماً لإدارة الاتصالات في حالات الكوارث. وتتكون هذه البيئة من عنصرين: إطار تنظيمي وسياساتي عام للاتصالات من أجل نشر تكنولوجيا المعلومات والاتصالات واستخدامها بشكل عام؛ وأطر وسياسات محددة لحالات الكوارث. وتشمل اعتبارات السياسة العامة تقليص الحواجز التنظيمية التي تعوق نشر تكنولوجيا المعلومات والاتصالات، وتعزيز تطوير بنية تحتية لتكنولوجيا المعلومات والاتصالات تتسم بالصلابة والقدرة على الصمود، وتبسيط إجراءات الحصول على التراخيص، وإدارة الطيف. وتساعد أطر وسياسات الاتصالات في حالات الكوارث على توجيه الأنشطة والمسؤوليات في جميع مراحل الكارثة وضمان استمرارية عمليات تكنولوجيا المعلومات والاتصالات في فترة التعافي. وتشمل التدابير السياساتية والتنظيمية المحددة لتكنولوجيا المعلومات والاتصالات والخاصة بأطر التصدي للكوارث اتخاذ إجراءات معجلة لمنح التراخيص خلال حدوث الكارثة، وإيجاد حلول لحواجز الجمارك التي تحول دون دخول معدات الاتصالات في حالات الطوارئ، وتنفيذ اتفاقية تامبيري بشأن توفير موارد الاتصالات للتخفيف من آثار الكوارث ومن أجل عمليات الإغاثة. وقد تناولت العديد من المساهمات الواردة خلال فترة الدراسة 2021-2018 السياسات والتخطيط على مستوى الحكومات والمنظمات.

6.1 تكنولوجيات الاتصالات في حالات الكوارث

يمكن استخدام الاتصالات/تكنولوجيا المعلومات والاتصالات، على النحو المشار إليه سابقاً، في جميع مراحل الكوارث: تتيح تكنولوجيا الاستشعار الإنذارات المبكرة بالكوارث الوشيكة من قبيل الأعاصير المدارية أو أعاصير المحيط الأطلسي، وبفضل تكنولوجيا المعلومات والاتصالات يمكن تبادل معلومات بالغة الأهمية بين المتضررين من الكارثة، بمن فيهم الجمهور، والمشاركين في التصدي القصير والطويل الأجل. ومن الأساسي أيضاً فهم تكنولوجيات الاتصالات وأنواع المعلومات التي يتعين تقاسمها. فعلى سبيل المثال، تشمل تكنولوجيات الاتصالات المستخدمة لتقديم معلومات الإنذار المبكر إلى المواطنين الهواتف المتنقلة، والمطاريف ذات الفتحات الصغيرة جداً (VSAT)، والهواتف الساتلية، وأنظمة الرد الصوتي التفاعلي، والإنترنت (بما في ذلك الوسائط القائمة على شبكة الويب)، والتلفزيون، والراديو، والصحافة، ومكبرات الصوت في اللافتات الرقمية، وشبكات المعرفة على الصعيد الوطني. ويمكن استخدام منصات وسائل التواصل الاجتماعي لجمع البيانات وتقاسم المعلومات، مما يمكن الهيئات المعنية بعمليات الإغاثة والتصدي من الرد على طلبات المساعدة وإقامة الاتصالات عبر المجموعات وداخلها من أجل تقاسم المعلومات وإدراك الوضع والإبلاغ. وهناك العديد من أدوات تكنولوجيا المعلومات والاتصالات التي تستخدم لإدارة الكوارث، ولكن هذا التقرير لا يناقش سوى القليل منها. وينبغي أن ينظر الخبراء بجدية في اتباع نهج قائم على المعايير تفادياً للانحصار في واحد أو أكثر من الحلول أو التكنولوجيات ذات التصميم المحدد.

7.1 آليات الاستجابة القائمة

عندما تشهد دولة معينة كارثة ما وتُحرم من قدراتها المعتادة في مجال الاتصالات، يمكنها أن تختار إعلان حالة الطوارئ التي تمكّن بدورها تكتل اتصالات الطوارئ (ETC) التابع للأمم المتحدة من إطلاق آلية خاصة بالتحديد السريع لتكنولوجيا الاتصالات الحيوية ونشرها في منطقة الكوارث مجاناً. وينبغي أن تدرك الدول أن هذه الآلية موجودة ومتاحة لها. وصُممت الآلية لتجنب اتباع نهج مخصص قد يتضمن مشاركة منظمات غير حكومية (NGO) مختلفة يصل كل منها إلى الموقع بمعدات وحلول مكررة ومن المحتمل أن تكون مهدِرة. وعلاوةً على ذلك، يوفر النهج استجابةً أكثر قابلية للتنبؤ بالنسبة إلى المجتمع الإنساني والحكومات على حد سواء. [1]

8.1 أنظمة الإنذار والتنبيه المبكرين

تكتسي أنظمة الإنذار المبكر أهمية أساسية في الحد من الخسائر في الأرواح والأضرار اللاحقة بالممتلكات. وبإمكان هذه الأنظمة الكشف عن كارثة أو التنبؤ بها ثم تقديم معلومات إلى السكان في الوقت المناسب باستخدام شبكات الاتصالات/تكنولوجيا المعلومات والاتصالات لرصد الوضع وإصدار التنبيهات. وتعزز أنظمة الإنذار المبكر تقييم المخاطر استناداً إلى الخبرات السابقة ومواطن الضعف، وتساعد على رصد الكوارث والتنبؤ بها، وتقدم رسائل واضحة إلى السكان في المناطق المعرضة للكوارث. وهذه الأنظمة مفيدة أيضاً في أنشطة الاستجابة لحالات الطوارئ بعد إصدار الإنذار.

بروتوكول التنبيه المشترك (CAP) هو بروتوكول رقمي لتبادل التنبيهات في حالات الطوارئ عبر مسارات اتصال متعددة: المهاتفة المتنقلة، والتلفزيون، والراديو، ومكبرات الصوت/صفارات الإنذار، والنوافذ المنبثقة في الحواسيب، ورسائل البريد الإلكتروني والرسائل النصية، وما إلى ذلك. وتُعتبر رسائل التنبيه بنسق بروتوكول الإنذار المشترك رسائل سهلة الفهم بالنسبة إلى الآلة والإنسان. وتوصي المبادئ التوجيهية للاتحاد بشأن الخطط الوطنية للاتصالات في حالات الطوارئ [2] بتصميم أنظمة الإنذار المبكر ونشرها، حيثما أمكن ربط جميع الأنظمة القائمة على الأخطار، للاستفادة من وفورات الحجم وتعزيز الاستدامة والكفاءة من خلال إطار متعدد الأغراض يأخذ في الاعتبار الأخطار المحتملة المتعددة واحتياجات المستعمل النهائي. وينبغي إدراج قائمة جرد لهذه الأنظمة في الخطة الوطنية للاتصالات في حالات الطوارئ (NETP) واستعراضها وتحديثها.

9.1 التدريبات والتمرينات

تؤدي التدريبات والتمرينات دوراً هاماً في الاستعداد لإدارة الطوارئ إذ تساعد على تحفيز القدرات والتدريب بحيث يتمكن الأشخاص من الاستجابة على النحو المتوقع عند حدوث كارثة حقيقية. ويتمثل الغرض الرئيسي من التدريبات والتمرينات في تحديد الفجوات بين الإجراءات المحددة وتنفيذها العملي ثم معالجة تلك الفجوات. ومن المزايا الأخرى لهذا النوع من بناء القدرات أنه يساهم في تعزيز سرعة وجودة وفعالية التأهب والاستجابة في حالات الطوارئ، وتحسين المساءلة وقياس النتائج، والحد من خطر الكوارث حيثما أمكن ذلك.

10.1 الممارسات الجيدة والمبادئ التوجيهية

الهدف من إجراء دراسة تعاونية هو تبادل ما تتعلمه البلدان جماعياً من تجارب بعضها البعض، ثم تحديد أفضل الممارسات واتباعها. فبالإضافة إلى المناقشات التي دارت خلال اجتماعات لجنة الدراسات، ساعدت ورش العمل الأربع التي عُقدت خلال فترة الدراسة والمعلومات المقدمة في ملحقات هذا التقرير النهائي على تحديد مبادئ توجيهية لجميع البلدان، خاصة الدول الجزرية الصغيرة النامية والبلدان غير الساحلية، وتحديد أفضل الممارسات في مجالات الإنذار المبكر والتدريبات والتمرينات ووضع السياسات.

11.1 العوامل البشرية والتعاون بين أصحاب المصلحة

لا تأخذ الكوارث الحدود الوطنية في الاعتبار. فالتخفيف من الأضرار يقتضي مساهمة مجموعة متنوعة من أصحاب المصلحة – الحكومات على الصعيد الوطني والإقليمي والمحلي، ومنظمات المعونة والإغاثة الأجنبية، والمنظمات غير الحكومية، ومنظمات المجتمع المدني، وكيانات القطاع الخاص، والمتطوعون ومجموعات المواطنين الفاعلين. وإذا أرادت هذه المجموعة التصدي بفعالية للتحديات التي تطرحها الكارثة، فأن من اللازم عليها أن تعمل بالتنسيق الوثيق فيما بينها وتتواصل على نحو يتسم بالكفاءة. ويتمثل أحد العوامل الأخرى التي يجب مراعاتها في الطريقة التي قد تؤثر بها الكارثة على أسرة عضو من أعضاء فريق الاستجابة ومن ثم كيف يمكن أو لا يمكن لهذا الشخص أن يكون في وضع يسمح له بالمساهمة في جهود الاستجابة. وتكتسي الخطط الاحتياطية أهمية أساسية في هذه الحالات. وبالإضافة إلى ذلك، جميع الكوارث محلية، أي عند وقوع كارثة، الجيران هم أول المستجيبين، وسيسعى الناس إلى مساعدة أنفسهم أولاً. وتساعد تكنولوجيا المعلومات والاتصالات على مواجهة هذا الواقع بتمكين الأشخاص من مساعدة أنفسهم أو بعضهم البعض. ولهذا الغرض، ينبغي إعداد خرائط الأخطار مسبقاً، بمساعدة المواطنين والحكومة المحلية، في المناطق التي يُحتمل تأثرها بالكوارث أو في مواقع الإخلاء أو الإيواء.

وتكتسي العوامل البشرية وتعاون أصحاب المصلحة أهمية بالغة في التعامل مع حالات الكوارث. فخلال التدريبات والتمرينات، يُرصد جانب الاتصال والتنسيق هذا بعناية؛ وحيثما وُجدت ثغرات فإن من الضروري تصحيحها وتوثيقها ووضع إجراءات تشغيلية معيارية أو مبادئ توجيهية بشأن الموضوع.

وهناك اعتبار إضافي وهو أنه في أعقاب الكارثة، تكون النساء أكثر ضعفاً وأكثر عرضة للوفاة من الرجال. ولجائحة فيروس كورونا المستجد (COVID-19) عواقب اجتماعية واقتصادية وخيمة على النساء والفتيات إذ يشكلن ما يقدّر بنسبة 70 في المائة من العاملين في مجال الرعاية الصحية، كما أنهن ممثلات تمثيلاً مفرطاً في الاقتصاد غير الرسمي ويتولين معظم الأعمال المنزلية، وتزيد هذه المجالات الثلاثة من أوجه عدم المساواة الموجودة من قبل. وفي الوقت نفسه، تعتبر المرأة شريكة حاسمة في بناء القدرة على مواجهة الكوارث. ويمكن لوجهات نظر النساء وخبراتهن، وقدرتهن على التنظيم والضغط والإبلاغ، أن تساهم بشكل كبير في إحراز تقدم في خطة إدارة مخاطر الكوارث. غير أن مجموعة من الحواجز القائمة تحد من قدرتهن على حماية أنفسهن والمشاركة في اتخاذ القرارات المتعلقة بالكوارث طوال مراحل دورة إدارة الكوارث.

ويحدد منشور مكتب تنمية الاتصالات بالاتحاد وتكتل اتصالات الطوارئ التابع للأمم المتحدة المعنون "المرأة وتكنولوجيا المعلومات والاتصالات، والاتصالات في حالات الطوارئ: تقرير عن الفرص والقيود" [3] طائفةً من العوامل التي تبرز الفجوة الرقمية بين الجنسين والتأثر المتزايد في للنساء والفتيات قبل وقوع الكوارث وأثناءها وبعدها. ويعرض أيضاً ممارسات جيدة وأمثلة عن كيفية استغلال تكنولوجيا المعلومات والاتصالات للنهوض بالمساواة بين الجنسين في مجال إدارة مخاطر الكوارث.

12.1 تكنولوجيا المعلومات والاتصالات من أجل إدارة الكوارث والتنمية المستدامة الذكية

تتشابك التنمية المستدامة الذكية مع العوامل البشرية وتعاون أصحاب المصلحة. وهي تنطوي على عدد من التحديات الرئيسية: تطوير آليات لتحسين التنسيق بين مجموعة واسعة من أصحاب المصلحة المشاركين في الاستجابة القائمة على تكنولوجيا المعلومات والاتصالات في حالات الطوارئ؛ ووضع الاستراتيجيات المالية اللازمة لبناء شراكات فعالة وتأمين تمويل متوقع ومرن؛ وضمان فعالية برامج تدريب المتطوعين وتوسيع شبكات تبادل المتطوعين؛ وبناء قدرات الشبكات الإقليمية والاستفادة من خبرتها. وبالإضافة إلى ذلك، يجب اتخاذ خطوات لأغراض منها إنشاء شراكات بين القطاعين العام والخاص يمكنها تعزيز فرص التعاون على الصعيدين الإقليمي والعالمي؛ واستحداث منصة أوسع لإدارة الكوارث ومن ثم ضمان خدمات الإغاثة القائمة على الاتصالات في حالات الكوارث في جميع الأوقات؛ وتنفيذ الحلول المخططة مسبقاً لتفادي إضاعة الوقت مع حلول مرتجلة على أرض الواقع؛ وإرساء الإطار التنظيمي الصحيح لتيسير جهود الإغاثة. وستساعد التدابير المتخذة بشأن هذه النقاط على تحقيق أهداف التنمية المستدامة. ويستند تقرير للاتحاد بشأن إدارة الكوارث والتنمية المستدامة الذكية [4] إلى مداولات ثلاثة أفرقة عمل تناولت الموضوع بشكل شامل – فريق العمل المعني بالصندوق العالمي للاستجابة السريعة في حالات الطوارئ (GEF)، وفريق العمل المعني بالمتطوعين من أجل الاتصالات في حالات الطوارئ، وفريق العمل المعني بمجموعة الأدوات والمبادئ التوجيهية التنظيمية.

13.1 الاعتبارات المتعلقة بتيسير النفاذ

تكون الكوارث مدمرة للفئات الضعيفة بوجه خاص: الأشخاص ذوو الإعاقة والأطفال والمسنون والعمال المهاجرون والعاطلون عن العمل والمشردون من ديارهم بسبب كوارث سابقة. فإدارة الكوارث يجب أن تكون شاملة لتلبية احتياجات هذه الفئات. ويمكن الاطلاع على معلومات شاملة عن دور تكنولوجيا المعلومات والاتصالات في مساعدة السكان المهمشين الذين يواجهون عقبات في الحصول على خدمات الاستجابة في حالات الكوارث، في التقرير ذي الصلة لقطاع تنمية الاتصالات بالاتحاد [5] ، الذي يقدم توصيات محددة لأصحاب المصلحة في كل مرحلة من مراحل إدارة الكوارث. وتتضمن التوصيات الشاملة ما يلي:

– التشاور مع أفراد الفئات الضعيفة من السكان مباشرة بشأن احتياجاتهم وتيسير مشاركتهم في جميع مراحل عملية إدارة الكارثة؛

– ضمان تيسير النفاذ إلى تكنولوجيا المعلومات والاتصالات وإمكانية استخدامها في كل مشروع بشأن عمليات إدارة الكوارث القائمة على استخدام تكنولوجيا المعلومات والاتصالات أو المشاريع الإنمائية القائمة على استخدام تكنولوجيا المعلومات والاتصالات؛

– استخدام مختلف أنواع الاستراتيجيات والآليات لتعزيز تيسير النفاذ إلى تكنولوجيا المعلومات والاتصالات، بما في ذلك التشريعات والسياسات واللوائح التنظيمية ومتطلبات منح التراخيص ومدونات السلوك والحوافز المادية وغير المادية؛

– بناء قدرات الفئات الضعيفة من السكان على استخدام تكنولوجيا المعلومات والاتصالات في حالات الكوارث من خلال برامج إذكاء الوعي والتدريب وتنمية المهارات؛

– استخدام أنماط متعددة من الاتصالات لتقديم المعلومات قبل الكوارث وأثناءها وبعدها، بوسائل منها:

• مواقع إلكترونية وتطبيقات متنقلة يسهل النفاذ إليها ومصممة وفقاً للمبادئ التوجيهية لإمكانية النفاذ إلى محتوى الويب؛

• إعلانات الخدمة العمومية المذاعة في الراديو والتلفزيون (باستخدام تدابير لتيسير النفاذ إليها، مثل الوصف السمعي والنصوص والعروض النصية والترجمة إلى لغة الإشارة)؛

• إرسال إعلانات ونصائح عن طريق خدمة الرسائل القصيرة (SMS) أو خدمة الرسائل المتعددة الوسائط (MMS) أو رسائل البريد الإلكتروني الجماعية الموجهة للمواطنين من السلطات الحكومية، ووكالات المعونة والإغاثة وغير ذلك؛

• صحائف وقائع وكتيبات وأدلة يمكن النفاذ إليها إلكترونياً؛

• عروض متعددة الوسائط (الحلقات الدراسية الإلكترونية والبث الشبكي والفيديوهات بما يشمل العرض على مواقع شائعة مثل يوتيوب)؛

• وسائط اجتماعية مخصصة الغرض مثل صفحات فيسبوك وحسابات تويتر تنشئها الحكومات والمنظمات المعنية بالتصدي للكوارث.

وبفضل التطورات التي يشهدها مجال الذكاء الاصطناعي، يمكن استعمال التكنولوجيا لتطوير أنظمة روبوتات الدردشة من أجل جمع المعلومات المتعلقة بالكوارث وتوزيعها. وستكون هذه التطبيقات مفيدة للفئات الضعيفة، بما في ذلك الأشخاص ذوو الإعاقة.

الفصل 2 – البيئة السياساتية والتنظيمية التمكينية

يعترف المجتمع الدولي بالدور الحيوي الذي تؤديه تكنولوجيا المعلومات والاتصالات في جميع مراحل الكوارث وأهمية إعداد خطط وطنية للاتصالات في حالات الطوارئ. ويسلم المجتمع الدولي بأن الجهود الرامية إلى الحد من مخاطر الكوارث يجب أن تُدمج منهجياً في جميع السياسات والخطط والبرامج المتعلقة بالتنمية المستدامة. ويتطلب نجاح نشر تكنولوجيا المعلومات والاتصالات واستعمالها، إلى جانب إعداد الخطط الوطنية للاتصالات في حالات الطوارئ وتنفيذها بيئة سياساتية تمكينية فعالة. وقد أبرز إطار عمل هيوغو للفترة 2015-2005 هذه الحاجة: " ينبغي اعتماد نهج متكامل يراعي المخاطر المتعددة من أجل الحد من خطر الكوارث وإدراجه في إطار السياسات وعمليات التخطيط والبرمجة المتعلقة بالتنمية المستدامة وأنشطة الإغاثة وإعادة التأهيل والانتعاش التي تنظم في أعقاب الكوارث والصراعات في البلدان المعرضة للكوارث." [6] وشدد إطار عمل هيوغو على أن الأطر التشريعية تؤدي دوراً رئيسياً في دمج الحد من مخاطر الكوارث في السياسات والخطط الإنمائية: " إن البلدان التي تضع أُطراً سياسية وتشريعية ومؤسسية للحد من خطر الكوارث وتستطيع إحداث التقدم وتتبعه من خلال مؤشرات معينة قابلة للقياس هي أقدر كثيراً من غيرها على إدارة المخاطر التي تواجهها وعلى تحقيق توافق واسع في الآراء حول تدابير الحد من خطر الكوارث والمشاركة فيها والامتثال لها في جميع قطاعات المجتمع." [7] وتكتسي التشريعات والقواعد الرسمية المكتوبة أهمية لأنها تحدد إطار آليات التنسيق وقنوات الاتصال وإجراءات التشغيل، وتحدد صناع القرار والوكالات ذات الصلة. وبالإضافة إلى ذلك، يمكن أن تساهم التشريعات والقواعد المكتوبة في استدامة عملية إدارة مخاطر الكوارث، بحيث تدوم سياسات إدارة الكوارث أكثر من الإدارات الحكومية الفردية وتؤمن، في جملة أمور أخرى، ميزانية مستقلة عن السياسة الحزبية. وفي العديد من الحالات، تساعد التشريعات الوطنية للحد من مخاطر الكوارث في تصميم الاستراتيجيات الوطنية ذات الصلة مع الهياكل المقابلة على الصعيد دون الوطني. ويسمح ذلك بإضفاء الطابع اللامركزي على الأدوار والمسؤوليات في المستويات الأدنى من الحكومة ويوفر هيكلاً تنسيقياً شاملاً يمكنه التنقل بين القطاعات والمستويات الحكومية. [8]

وتساعد أطر وسياسات الاتصالات في حالات الكوارث على توجيه الأنشطة والمسؤوليات في جميع مراحل الكارثة وضمان استمرارية عمليات تكنولوجيات المعلومات والاتصالات خلال فترة التعافي. وتشمل التدابير السياساتية والتنظيمية المحددة لتكنولوجيا المعلومات والاتصالات لأغراض أطر التصدي للكوارث اتخاذ إجراءات معجلة لمنح التراخيص خلال وقوع كارثة، وإيجاد حلول لحواجز الجمارك التي تحول دون دخول معدات الاتصالات في حالات الطوارئ، وتنفيذ اتفاقية تامبيري.

وتمثل أحد أهداف المسألة 5/2، على النحو المشار إليه في الفصل 1، في مناقشة البيئة السياساتية والتنظيمية التمكينية. وبناء على ذلك، عُقدت حلقة دراسية إلكترونية في 14 يناير 2020 بعنوان "البيئة السياساتية التمكينية لإدارة الكوارث بفعالية، بما في ذلك التصدي لجائحة كوفيد-19" (انظر الملحق 4، الفقرة 4.A4)، اجتمع فيها خبراء ناقشوا مكونات بيئة سياساتية قادرة على تعزيز تأهب الاتصالات في حالات الطوارئ وقدرة الشبكات على الصمود، والحد من مخاطر الكوارث، وإدارة الكوارث. وناقش الخبراء أيضاً السياسات الرامية إلى تمكين المرونة عند نشر معدات الاتصالات في حالات الطوارئ، والتأهب الناجح للكوارث، والاستجابة فيما يتعلق بالاتصالات وتكنولوجيا المعلومات والاتصالات، والدروس المستفادة في مجال وضع وتنفيذ السياسات التمكينية والخطط الوطنية للاتصالات في حالات الطوارئ.

1.2 السياسات المتعلقة بنشر أنظمة الاتصالات في حالات الطوارئ

تحدد الخطط الوطنية للاتصالات في حالات الطوارئ استراتيجيات واضحة لضمان توفر الاتصالات خلال مراحل الكارثة، وتعزيز التنسيق والتعاون بين جميع مستويات الحكومة والوكالات الإنسانية ومقدمي الخدمات والمجتمعات المعرضة للخطر.

الشكل 1: السياسة العامة المتعلقة بنشر أنظمة الاتصالات في حالات الطوارئ: العناصر الأساسية

المصدر: الاتحاد الدولي للاتصالات [9]

تُستقى السياسات المتعلقة بنشر أنظمة الاتصالات في حالات الطوارئ من بيان رفيع المستوى للسياسة العامة، و/أو تشريعات وطنية و/أو خطة وطنية لإدارة مخاطر الكوارث (انظر الشكل 1)، وتوفر هذه العناصر، مجتمعةً، إطاراً مؤسسياً ومشتركاً بين المؤسسات للإجراءات التي تتخذها الحكومة والمجتمع المدني لمواجهة التهديد أو الكارثة.

وينبغي أن تحظى الخطة بالتزام أعلى المستويات الحكومية، التي بدورها يتعين عليها تقديم الدعم التنظيمي والقيادي، وتخصيص الموارد، والتعهد بتحقيق النتائج المنشودة والحفاظ عليها. وينبغي توافر مجموعة محددة من السياسات بشأن الاتصالات في حالات الطوارئ، لدعم التشريعات الوطنية أو تكملتها. ويجب الحرص على أن تُصمَّم السياسات بما يضمن بناء قدرات الاتصالات الوطنية القابلة للتشغيل البيني أو تنميتها أو تحسينها.

ويوجد في العديد من البلدان إطار سياساتي من هذا القبيل. ففي الهند، تُعتبر الاتصالات في حالات الكوارث مهمة على أعلى مستوى. وتشدد السياسة الوطنية للاتصالات لعام 2012 على أهمية إنشاء شبكات اتصالات متينة وقادرة على الصمود لتلبية الحاجة إلى الدعم الاستباقي للتخفيف من الكوارث الطبيعية ومن صنع الإنسان. وتنص هذه السياسة على وضع إجراءات تشغيل معيارية قطاعية لتعزيز التخفيف الفعال والمبكر أثناء الكوارث وحالات الطوارئ، وتشجع على استخدام تكنولوجيا المعلومات والاتصالات للتنبؤ بالكوارث ورصدها والإنذار بها ونشر المعلومات. ووضعت حكومة الهند سياسة وخطة ومبادئ توجيهية بشأن الكوارث من خلال سلسلة من التدابير: قانون إدارة الكوارث، 2005؛ سياسة إدارة الكوارث، 2009؛ المبادئ التوجيهية للاتصالات في حالات الكوارث، 2012؛ خطة إدارة الكوارث، 2019. وفي معرض التصدي لجائحة كوفيد-19، صدرت تعليمات الإغلاق/إعادة الفتح وتدابير السلامة والأمن بموجب قانون إدارة الكوارث. وعمل أيضاً منظم الاتصالات في الهند، أي هيئة تنظيم الاتصالات في الهند، على موضوع الاتصالات في حالات الكوارث. وأصدرت الهيئة توصيات للحكومة بشأن رقم الطوارئ الوحيد (112)، وبشأن تسيير النداء ذي الأولوية للأشخاص المشاركين في عمليات الإغاثة والإنقاذ، وبشأن الحاجة إلى أن يسمح مقدمو خدمات الاتصالات لمشتركيهم بالتجوال على شبكات أخرى خلال فترات الكوارث دون أي تكلفة إضافية. وأوصت الهيئة أيضاً بإنشاء شبكة لحماية الجمهور والإغاثة في حالات الكوارث (PPDR) في الهند.

ولا تحظى هايتي حتى الآن بنظام متكامل للاتصالات في حالات الطوارئ، ولكنها أنشأت لجنة قطاعية بشأن الاتصالات في حالات الطوارئ ( Comité sectoriel sur les télécommunications d’urgence، أو COSTU)، تُعنى بتنسيق الاستجابات القطاعية وفقاً للخطة الوطنية لإدارة الكوارث والمخاطر. وقد تم تشكيل اللجنة بهدف استخدام الاتصالات وتكنولوجيا المعلومات والاتصالات لتعزيز التنسيق بين الوقاية من الكوارث والتأهب والتصدي لها. ومن خلال اللجنة، تُظهر الحكومة عزمها على تعزيز تدابير الوقاية من الكوارث والتأهب والتصدي لها.

وقد أعد برنامج الأغذية العالمي (WFP) وقطاع تنمية الاتصالات بالاتحاد (ITU-D) قائمة مرجعية لتأهب الاتصالات في حالات الطوارئ تفحص المجالات المواضيعية الرئيسية لأغراض احتمال إدراجها في خطة وطنية للاتصالات في حالات الطوارئ، وتقدم نهجاً بسيطاً لإسناد الدرجات من أجل تقييم حالة التقدم بشأن كل نقطة قرار أو إجراء بمرور الوقت. وتدعم القائمة المرجعية بشكل رئيسي وضع الخطط الوطنية للاتصالات في حالات الطوارئ وتنقيحها، مع التركيز على فهم الاستعداد الوطني لتمكين اتصالات الاستجابة في حال وقوع كارثة وتحديد المجالات المستهدفة التي قد تتطلب الاهتمام.

2.2 السياسات المتعلقة بتمكين الإنذارات المبكرة واستمرارية الاتصالات والاستجابات بمزيد من الفعالية

يتمثل الهدف من أنظمة الإنذار المبكر بالأخطار الطبيعية في الحد من الضرر الذي قد تلحقه هذه الأخطار بالأشخاص المحتمل تأثرهم. ويمكن أن تتحول الأخطار الطبيعية إلى كوارث إن لم يتمكن الأشخاص المتأثرون من التعامل معها. ولذلك فإن الهدف الرئيسي من نظام الإنذار هو تمكين الأفراد والمجتمعات من الاستجابة في الوقت المناسب وبالطريقة الملائمة من أجل الحد من خطر الموت والإصابة وما قد يلحق بالممتلكات من خسائر وأضرار، والتخفيف من أثر الكارثة. فالمجتمع الذي لا تتوفر لديه إنذارات مبكرة سيكون غير مستعد وسيعاني أكثر من جراء الخطر.

وتتمثل أولوية العمل الثانية الواردة في قائمة الخمس نقاط المحددة في إطار عمل هيوغو للفترة 2015-2005 في " تحديد مخاطر الكوارث وتقييمها ورصدها وتعزيز الإنذار المبكر." [10] وتتطلب السلطات المعنية بصنع القرارات المتعلقة بالتخفيف من آثار الكوارث إنذارات مبكرة متزايدة الدقة لضمان صياغة تدابير فعالة. ويشمل ذلك تمديد مهلة الإنذارات، وتحسين دقتها، وتلبية الطلب المتزايد على التوقعات الاحتمالية، وتحسين تبليغ الإنذارات ونشرها، واستخدام التكنولوجيات الجديدة لتنبيه الجمهور، وتوجيه خدمات الإنذار إلى المستعملين المعنيين والمحددين، وإرسال رسائل إنذار واضحة لا لبس فيها وسهلة الفهم توضح الإجراء المناسب للتصدي. ومن الأفضل إتاحة مدى أطول لمهل الإنذارات والتوقعات الاحتمالية للتقليل من عدد الإنذارات الكاذبة. وكشفت مساهمات الدول الأعضاء الواردة في فترة الدراسة أن بلداناً كثيرة قد اتخذت خطوات لإنشاء نظام متين وفعال للإنذار المبكر. فقد قامت الهند، على سبيل المثال، بتعيين وكالات مركزية رئيسية لرصد الكوارث وإصدار الإنذار المبكر بها في البلد: الإدارة الهندية للأرصاد الجوية فيما يتعلق بالأعاصير المدارية والفيضانات والجفاف والزلازل؛ واللجنة المركزية للمياه فيما يتعلق بالفيضانات؛ وهيئة المسح الجيولوجي في الهند فيما يتعلق بالانهيارات الأرضية؛ والمركز الوطني الهندي لخدمات معلومات المحيطات فيما يتعلق بالتسونامي؛ ومؤسسة دراسة الثلوج والانهيارات الثلجية فيما يتعلق بالانهيارات الثلجية.

وترسل وكالات الإنذار المبكر في الهند أيضاً معلومات مهمة إلى البلدان المجاورة وإلى العديد من الوكالات المماثلة في المحيط الهندي ومنطقة آسيا والمحيط الهادئ. وبفضل الجهود المنسقة لهذه الوكالات المختلفة ونشر المعلومات في المجتمع باستخدام وسائل الإعلام الإلكترونية والهواتف الأرضية/المتنقلة وتكنولوجيات من قبيل بروتوكول التنبيه المشترك (CAP)، تمكنت الهند مثلاً من زيادة مهلة الإنذار بالأعاصير المدارية، كي يتاح لوكالات الإنقاذ والإنعاش ذات الصلة الوقت الكافي لإنقاذ الأشخاص ونقلهم إلى أماكن أكثر أمناً. وبالتالي، تمكنت الهند من الحد بشكلٍ كبير من الخسائر في الأرواح البشرية والحيوانية والأضرار اللاحقة بالممتلكات أثناء الأعاصير المدارية التي تضرب المناطق الساحلية للبلد كل عام تقريباً.

وفي بوروندي، تُعنى وكالات عديدة بالتصدي للكوارث. فالمعهد الجغرافي في بورودي، وهو وكالة عامة، يتولى مسؤولية تعزيز أنشطة الأرصاد الجوية على الصعيد الوطني من أجل رفاه السكان. ويضمن الصليب الأحمر في بوروندي الاستجابة السريعة ومساعدة الضحايا أثناء الكوارث ذات الصلة بتغير المناخ. وتؤدي الحكومات المحلية دوراً رائداً في حماية السكان بمساعدة أصحاب المصلحة الآخرين في مكافحة الكوارث. وقد أنشأت بوروندي منصة وطنية لإدارة المخاطر تُعنى بالوقاية من المخاطر المتعلقة بالكوارث وإدارة هذه المخاطر وإذكاء الوعي بها واتخاذ تدابير ملموسة عند وقوع الكارثة. وتعمل جميع هذه الكيانات بالتنسيق فيما بينها للحد من خطر الكوارث والتصدي لها.

وتحظى البرازيل واليابان ونيوزيلندا والولايات المتحدة أيضاً بأنظمة للإنذار المبكر وتستخدم وسائط متنوعة، آخرها بروتوكول التنبيه المشترك، لإصدار التنبيهات.

ويمكن تحسين الوقاية من الكوارث والصمود أمامها وتحسين قدرات خدمات الطوارئ باستخدام أحدث شبكات الاتصالات الساتلية وشبكة الاتصالات المتنقلة العمومية والشبكات الخاصة للاتصالات في حالات الطوارئ، ودمج موارد الشبكات الفضائية وشبكات الأرض للاتصالات في حالات الطوارئ. ويرد وصف تكنولوجيات أخرى للاتصالات في حالات الكوارث في الفصل 3 (فالصين، على سبيل المثال، تستخدم ساتلاً عالي الصبيب في النطاق Ka إلى جانب خدمات الجيل الرابع (4G) في الاستجابة لحالات الطوارئ وعمليات الإغاثة في حالات الكوارث (انظر الملحق 1، الفقرة 8.2.A1). وتوجد العديد من التطبيقات المختلفة، ويمكن نشر الحلول من خلال الاستفادة من الاتصالات والصور الساتلية لكشف الكوارث وإرسال المعلومات المتعلقة بها. ومن شأن السواتل أن تمكّن الاتصالات في الوقت الفعلي من أي مكان في العالم.

ونظمت لجنة الدراسات، في إطار عملها، جلسة نقاش حول أنظمة الإنذار المبكر، بما يشمل تأكيد السلامة، في 8 مايو 2018. وسلطت الجلسة الضوء على عدد من أفضل الممارسات في مجال سياسات الإنذار المبكر واستمرارية الاتصالات والاستجابة الفعالة (انظر الملحق 4، الفقرة 1.A4 للمزيد من التفاصيل)، خاصة فيما يتعلق بالمرونة التنظيمية والمرونة بشكلٍ عام، والتكنولوجيات المتطورة وأنظمة التنبيه في حالات الطوارئ، والحاجة إلى السياسات التمكينية، والتوصيلية، وبناء القدرات، والتحسن الجاري في الإجراءات والقوائم المرجعية المتعلقة بحالات الطوارئ.

3.2 التدخلات السياساتية المتعلقة بجائحة كوفيد-19

أعلنت منظمة الصحة العالمية (WHO) جائحة كوفيد-19 في 11 مارس 2020. وسرعان ما انتشر المرض في جميع أنحاء العالم مسبباً ملايين الوفيات وخسائر اقتصادية بتريليونات الدولارات. وبمساعدة تكنولوجيا المعلومات والاتصالات، قدمت البلدان مجموعة متنوعة من الاستجابات لمعالجة المشاكل التي واجهتها جميعاً: مثلاً، باتخاذ خطوات لتلبية زيادة الطلب على النطاق العريض؛ إلغاء أو خفض رسوم/تكاليف الاتصالات؛ تيسير التعبئة المجانية للهواتف المتنقلة المدفوعة رسومها مسبقاً بالنسبة للمشتركين غير القادرين على تعبئة هواتفهم خلال فترات الإغلاق؛ تمكين تعقب الأشخاص المصابين ومخالطيهم باستخدام تطبيقات متنقلة؛ تطوير تطبيقات متنقلة تبين مدى توافر أسرة المستشفيات والبنية التحتية الصحية المرتبطة بها.

ومن بين الدروس العديدة التي استُخلصت من الجائحة ونوقشت خلال الحلقة الدراسية الإلكترونية بشأن "البيئة السياساتية التمكينية لإدارة الكوارث بفعالية، بما في ذلك التصدي لجائحة كوفيد-19" إدراك الجميع أن شبكات الاتصالات والبنية التحتية الرقمية في العالم يجب أن تكون قوية وقادرة على الصمود وقائمة على وحدات تجميعية وقابلة للتطوير وأفضل تأهباً للتعامل مع الكوارث بجميع أنواعها.

الفصل 3 – تكنولوجيات الاتصالات في حالات الكوارث

يصف هذا الفصل مختلف التكنولوجيا الناشئة للاتصالات في حالات الكوارث التي يمكن تنفيذها لدعم إدارة الكوارث.

1.3 تكنولوجيات الاتصالات

يمكن أن يساعد استخدام الاتصالات/تكنولوجيا المعلومات والاتصالات في الوقاية من الكوارث والتأهب لها والإنذار المبكر بها والتصدي لها والإغاثة بعد وقوعها. ومعظم تكنولوجيا المعلومات والاتصالات موصولة بشبكات الاتصالات، لذا فإن من المهم ضمان وجود البنية التحتية المناسبة للاتصالات. ومن شأن شبكات مختلفة للاتصالات أن تكون مفيدة في إدارة الكوارث.

‒ شبكات الاتصالات الساتلية: تتميز الاتصالات عبر السواتل بأنها لا تتضرر خلال الكوارث الطبيعية. وتُستخدم العديد من الخدمات الساتلية بما في ذلك معدات السواتل الثابتة، والمعدات الموجودة على المركبات المتحركة مثل مركبات الاستجابة للحوادث أو سيارات الإسعاف، والمعدات المحمولة مثل الهواتف الساتلية والشبكات العالمية عريضة النطاق (BGAN) في الاتصالات في حالات الكوارث. وعلاوةً على ذلك، تضطلع الاتصالات الساتلية بدور هام في التنبؤ بالكوارث والتخفيف منها والإنذار المبكر بشأنها والتصدي لها، وغالباً ما تكون أول تكنولوجيا يتم نشرها عندما تتأثر التكنولوجيات الأرضية. ويمكن أن تساعد الاتصالات الساتلية أيضاً في تجميع البيانات، وضمان اتصالات أكثر قدرة على الصمود وتوفير اتصالات التعافي من الكوارث؛ وقد تم إدراجها في الشبكات الأرضية، على سبيل المثال في شبكة خدمات الطوارئ في المملكة المتحدة، لهذا الغرض.

‒ المركبات الجوية: تشبه شبكات الاتصالات الساتلية، حيث إن إرسالات الموجات الراديوية من المرسِلات-المستجيبات المثبتة على المركبات الجوية، بما في ذلك المركبات الجوية غير المأهولة (UAV)، إلى محطات الترحيل لا تواجه أي حواجز على سطح الأرض، لذا فإنها مفيدة في حالات الكوارث الطبيعية.

‒ تكنولوجيا الشبكات المخصصة: على الرغم من أن الشبكات المخصصة لا تملك قدرات واسعة النطاق فيما يتعلق بالتوصيل الشبكي، فإنها تتمتع بقدرات فريدة فيما يتعلق بالتشابك، ويمكن استخدامها كتكنولوجيا تكميلية في عمليات الإنقاذ في حالات الطوارئ في البراري والأقبية المؤقتة ومنافذ الخروج في المباني الشاهقة.

‒ الشبكات المتنقلة من الجيل الخامس: تلبي السيناريوهات الثلاثة الرئيسية لتطبيقات الجيل الخامس – النطاق العريض المتنقل المعزز، والاتصالات فائقة الموثوقية وذات الكمون المنخفض، والاتصالات الآلية الكثيفة – جل احتياجات الأعمال المتعلقة بالاتصالات في حالات الطوارئ من عرض النطاق الواسع والكمون المنخفض والموثوقية العالية. وتنطوي هذه الشبكات على الإمكانات اللازمة لتعزيز قدرات الإنقاذ المتعلقة بالاتصالات في حالات الطوارئ والدعم الشامل في حالات الطوارئ، بهدف تحقيق مستوى جديد من إدارة الطوارئ. ومن المتوقع في المستقبل أن تعمل الشبكات الخاصة والشبكات العمومية من الجيل الخامس معاً لتقديم خدمات اتصالات قادرة على الصمود من أجل إدارة الطوارئ. وسيؤدي دمج الشبكات العمومية والخاصة إلى شبكات مضمونة ثلاثية الأبعاد للاتصالات في حالات الطوارئ تنطوي على التكامل وقابلية التشغيل بين الفضاء والأرض، وسيؤدي أيضاً إلى تكييف ومواءمة أنظمة الاتصالات المضمونة في حالات الطوارئ.

2.3 التكنولوجيات الناشئة في مجال الاتصالات في حالات الكوارث

1.2.3 التطبيقات المتنقلة

مع انتشار الهواتف الذكية، بدأ الناس يستعملون بكثافة الخدمات القائمة على الإنترنت من قبيل شبكات التواصل الاجتماعي وعمليات البحث عن المعلومات والتجارة الإلكترونية، وأصبحت التطبيقات القائمة على الإنترنت حلولاً مهمة في حالات الكوارث. فالتطبيق Fisher Friend Mobile، مثلاً، هو تطبيق متنقل للإنذار المبكر وحل فريد أحادي النافذة لتلبية الاحتياجات الشاملة من الشاطئ إلى الشاطئ لمجتمع الصيادين، إذ يتيح للضعفاء منهم خدمات النفاذ الفوري إلى المعارف والمعلومات الحرجة والقريبة من الوقت الفعلي بشأن الطقس ومناطق الصيد المحتملة وتوقعات أحوال المحيطات والمعلومات المتعلقة بالسوق. ويتلقى الصيادون الآن توقعات منتظمة بشأن أحوال الطقس في المحيطات وإنذارات مبكرة بأحوال الطقس السيئة وإشعارات بشأن مناطق الصيد المحتملة.

ومن الأمثلة الأخرى خرائط الكوارث التي يتيحها فيسبوك. فالأشخاص الذين يستخدمون تطبيق فيسبوك مع تمكين خدمة تحديد الموقع يتلقون بانتظام معلومات حول موقعهم على خط الطول وخط العرض. ومن شأن بيانات تحديد الموقع هذه أن تصبح، بعد جمعها وتجريدها من الهوية، مصدراً للمعلومات بعد الكارثة. وتشمل أنماط مجموعات البيانات على فيسبوك حركة الأشخاص وكثافة الحشود والمعلومات التي تجمعها أداة التحقق من السلامة لفيسبوك بعد الكارثة.

2.2.3 استعمال خدمات الشبكات الاجتماعية

وسائل التواصل الاجتماعي هي منصات تمكن المستخدمين من المشاركة في المحتوى والتعليق عليه وإنشائه أثناء التواصل مع مستخدمين آخرين ومع الجمهور. ويمكن استعمال خدمات الشبكات الاجتماعية (SNS) ووسائل التواصل الاجتماعي على الإنترنت من قبيل فيسبوك وتويتر ويوتيوب وغوغل+ أثناء الكوارث لتنبيه الأشخاص الموجودين خارج المناطق المعنية وتعيين المتطوعين و/أو المتبرعين، ولم شمل المشردين من أسر وأصدقاء، وتقديم معلومات حول الممتلكات والجثث غير المطالب بها أو مراكز المعونة وغير ذلك من الموارد. ويمكن استعمال هذه الخدمات لتقديم معلومات محدثة مثلاً عن حالات إغلاق الطرق وانقطاع التيار الكهربائي والحرائق والحوادث وأحداث أخرى. ويمكن أن تساعد هذه الخدمات الناس في تحسين التأهب للكوارث وفهم أيّ المنظمات يمكنها المساعدة. وأثناء الكارثة، تتيح هذه الخدمات للمستعملين التواصل مباشرة مع أسرهم ومع المراسلين والمنظمات التطوعية والسكان الآخرين، والتقاسم الفوري للمعلومات. وبعد الكارثة، تساعد هذه الخدمات على جمع أفراد المجتمع لمناقشة الحدث وتقاسم المعلومات وتنسيق جهود التعافي والحصول على معلومات بشأن المعونة وما إلى ذلك.

فعلى سبيل المثال، عقب وقوع كارثة كبرى وقعت في اليابان، استخدمت وسائل التواصل الاجتماعي على نطاق واسع أثناء عمليات الإنقاذ وأنشطة جمع التبرعات. وبالمقارنة مع قنوات الاتصال التقليدية، يمكن لوسائل التواصل الاجتماعي نشر المعلومات حول مرافق ولوازم التعافي بطريقة أكثر سرعة ودقة وموثوقية.

وخلال الفيضانات التي اجتاحت تشيناي، الهند، في عام 2015، استخدم الناس وسائل التواصل الاجتماعي بشكل مكثف للاتصال بالعالم الخارجي. وتوجه سكان المدينة إلى وسائل التواصل الاجتماعي لعرض منازلهم على الغرباء الذين يبحثون عن مأوى يحميهم من الأمطار والفيضانات. واستخدم الضحايا والمساعدون على حد سواء الوسمين #ChennaiFloods و #ChennaiRainHelps.

وفي الحالات التي تؤدي فيها الكوارث إلى انقطاع خدمات الاتصالات، خاصة القائمة منها على الإنترنت، طورت اليابان نظاماً محمولاً للتوصيل الشبكي المحلي يعرف باسم نظام الحوسبة السحابية القابل للنفاذ محلياً. ويتألف هذا النظام من نقطة نفاذ إلى Wi-Fi ومخدِّم حاسوبي صغير وبطارية وأجهزة طرفية أخرى. وتجمَّع هذه المكونات في حقيبة محمولة يمكن نقلها بسهولة إلى المناطق المتضررة من الكوارث. ويعمل المخدِّم كمخدِّم للويب ويتيح وظائف الاتصال الأساسية اللازمة في حالات الكوارث.

وطورت اليابان أيضاً نظاماً قائماً على الدردشة الروبوتية يعرف باسم SOCDA (منصة أطراف الحوار لمراقبة الديناميات الاجتماعية ودعم الضحايا من أجل إدارة الكوارث). ويستخدم النظام تكنولوجيا الذكاء الاصطناعي لجمع المعلومات المتعلقة بالكوارث من الناس عبر خدمات الشبكات الاجتماعية، ويجمِّع المحتويات بتطبيق تكنولوجيات تحليل وتلخيص المعلومات المتعلقة بالكوارث (انظر القسم 6.3 أدناه)، ويضعها على خريطة ويوزع المعلومات اللازمة لإجلاء الناس في الوقت المناسب. ويمكن للمواطنين وأول المستجيبين استخدام النظام بمجرد "إضافته إلى قائمة الأصدقاء" على خدمات الشبكات الاجتماعية. ومن المتوقع أن يُستخدم النظام من جانب الحكومات الوطنية والمحلية والمستجيبين الأوائل (بمن فيهم العاملون في مجال الرعاية الصحية) والأشخاص في المناطق المتضررة من الكوارث في البلدان المتقدمة والنامية على حد سواء.

3.2.3 التنبيه العام المتكامل

من بالغ الأهمية، عند تطوير نظام للتنبيه والإنذار، أن تتوفر السلطة والسياسة العامة والإدارة المناسبة، من أجل إعطاء الأولوية للموظفين والتمويل.

وفي الولايات المتحدة، يمثل النظام العام المتكامل للتنبيه والإنذار (IPAWS) التابع للوكالة الفيدرالية لإدارة الطوارئ (FEMA) نظاماً فريداً للتنبيه والإنذار بأخطار متعددة ويتميز بتعدد المستعملين على مستوى البلد بأكمله وتستخدمه الكيانات الفيدرالية والولائية والمحلية والقبلية والإقليمية في جميع أنحاء البلد. ويستخدم النظام معايير التكنولوجيا والمعلومات للاتصال ببنى تحتية متعددة لتكنولوجيا الاتصالات من القطاع الخاص وتمكينها من إبلاغ رسالة واحدة لحالات الطوارئ في وقت واحد عبر مسارات متعددة للنشر العام: الراديو والتلفزيون والأجهزة المتنقلة والأنظمة الموصولة بالإنترنت والمواقع الإلكترونية والتطبيقات.

وصُممت معمارية النظام IPAWS (انظر الشكل 2) لدعم قابلية التشغيل البيني مع أي أنظمة للتنبيه والإنذار في البلد تستخدم نفس المعايير. وتمثل المنصة المفتوحة للنظام العام المتكامل للتنبيه والإنذار من أجل شبكات الطوارئ (IPAWS-OPEN) البنية التحتية المستخدمة لتمرير رسائل التنبيه والإنذار المستيقن منها إلى الجمهور باستعمال أنظمة الراديو والتلفزيون في نظام التنبيه في حالات الطوارئ، والنظام اللاسلكي لتنبيهات الطوارئ الموجهة إلى الهواتف الخلوية، والمحطات الراديوية للأرصاد الجوية التابعة للإدارة الوطنية للمحيطات والغلاف الجوي (NOAA) وأنظمة اتصالات أخرى.

الشكل 2: معمارية النظام العام المتكامل للتنبيه والإنذار (IPAWS)

المصدر: الولايات المتحدة [11]

4.2.3 استخدام المركبات الجوية المأهولة أو غير المأهولة

يتزايد استخدام المركبات الجوية غير المأهولة من جانب الحكومات والمستهلكين والشركات. وتدعم هذه المركبات مجموعة واسعة من الحلول القطاعية وتستخدم على نطاق واسع في المرافق العامة والزراعة من أجل التسليم السريع والاستجابة في حالات الطوارئ، وفي مجال الطاقة وما إلى ذلك.

استخدام المركبات الجوية غير المأهولة في إطفاء الحرائق

ثبت أن المركبات الجوية غير المأهولة، أو الطائرات بدون طيار، مفيدة جداً في إطفاء الحرائق. وبإمكان هذه المركبات أن تتعقب انتشار الحرائق ومصدرها وتساعد في توجيه عملية الإطفاء. ويمكن استخدام صور الحريق ومدى انتشاره، بما في ذلك الصور الحرارية، لاتخاذ القرار بشأن كيفية إخماد هذا الحريق. وفي أبريل 2019، استُخدمت مركبتان جويتان مدنيتان غير مأهولتين لإخماد الحريق في كاتدرائية نوتردام (Notre-Dame) في باريس. وفي الوقت الحاضر، تسمح شبكة الجيل الرابع (4G) بتلبية الاحتياجات من الاتصالات في بعض سيناريوهات المركبات الجوية غير المأهولة، ولكن هناك العديد من التحديات من حيث عرض النطاق والكمون والتنسيق المتعلق بالتداخل. ومع التطور السريع لصناعة المركبات الجوية غير المأهولة، ظهرت متطلبات جديدة فيما يتعلق بوصلات الاتصالات لهذه المركبات والتكامل الوثيق مع تكنولوجيا الاتصالات المتنقلة الخلوية. ويمكن التصدي لهذه التحديات فور انتشار استخدام تكنولوجيات الجيل الخامس على نطاق واسع.

الاتصالات في حالات الطوارئ عبر محطة قاعدة عالية الارتفاع

في حالة وقوع كارثة طبيعية، يمكن للمركبات الجوية غير المأهولة أن تنشر بسرعة محطات قاعدة عالية الارتفاع لاستعادة وظائف الاتصالات (الصوت والبيانات).

وجرت العادة أن تُستخدم مركبات الاتصالات في حالات الطوارئ مؤقتاً لضمان الاتصالات في الحالات التي تسبب فيها الزلازل والفيضانات والانهيارات الوحلية وغيرها من الكوارث الطبيعية أعطالاً واسعة النطاق. بيد أن هذه المركبات تقدم تغطية محدودة نسبياً للخدمات وتتسم بضعف استقرار الإشارة؛ حتى أنها قد لا تتمكن من بلوغ المنطقة المركزية للكارثة في حال انهيار الطرقات أو ازدحامها. ولذلك، فإن هذه الطريقة التقليدية لإنشاء محطات الاتصالات في حالات الطوارئ واستعادة المحطات القاعدة غير فعّالة ومكلّفة وصعبة وتستغرق وقتاً طويلاً. ويوفر نضج تكنولوجيا المركبات الجوية غير المأهولة ودمجها في أنظمة الاتصالات في حالات الطوارئ طريقة جديدة وأكثر سرعة وملاءمة للمشغلين من أجل استعادة الاتصالات في مناطق الكوارث.

المركبات الجوية غير المأهولة المربوطة + محطة قاعدة عالية الارتفاع

تزوَّد أنظمة المركبات الجوية غير المأهولة (UAV) المربوطة من الأرض وتُرفع إلى منصة الإقلاع بواسطة كبل للربط قادر على الطيران دون انقطاع. وعندما تعمل المحطة القاعدة الجوية على متن مركبة جوية غير مأهولة، تقوم أجهزة الإمداد بالطاقة على الأرض بتزويد النظام المربوط والوحدات الراديوية البعيدة الموجودة على المتن بالطاقة. وتتواصل الوحدات الموجودة على المتن مع مركبات اتصالات الطوارئ عبر أجهزة وحدات النطاق الأساسي على الأرض باستخدام خط الألياف البصرية للنظام المربوط، ويمكن توصيل مركبات اتصالات الطوارئ ببرج المحطة القاعدة القريبة من خلال أجهزة الموجات الصغرية أو الألياف البصرية أو مركبات الاتصالات الساتلية، ثم ترحَّل الإشارة إلى الشبكة الأساسية لتحقيق تغطية الإشارة المتنقلة. ولذلك، يتم التعامل بفعالية مع تأثير التضاريس على الموجة الكهرمغنطيسية وضمان التغطية المستمرة في منطقة معينة.

ويمكن للمحطات القاعدة عالية الارتفاع لاتصالات الطوارئ الموجودة على متن المركبات UAV تغطية ما يصل إلى 50 كيلومتراً مربعاً وتوفير خدمة الرسائل الفورية للآلاف من مستخدمي الهواتف المحمولة في آن واحد. ونظراً لقدرتها على الوصول بسرعة إلى ارتفاع يتراوح بين 50 متراً و200 متر، فإن بإمكانها أن توفر في مناطق الكوارث خدمة نقل الصوت عبر تكنولوجيا التطور الطويل الأجل (VoLTE) وخدمات بيانات أخرى على مدار الساعة دون انقطاع. ويمكن للمركبات UAV المربوطة المقترنة بمحطات قاعدة جوية أن تستعيد بسرعة الاتصالات في الموقع، وتعالج مشكلة التغطية بالإشارات في حالات الطوارئ وتحسّن من قدرة الحكومة والمشغلين على دعم اتصالات الطوارئ بشكل فعال في إطار التصدي للكوارث الطبيعية.

المركبات الجوية غير المأهولة ثابتة الأجنحة + محطة قاعدة عالية الارتفاع

يمكن للمركبات الجوية غير المأهولة (UAV) الكبيرة ثابتة الأجنحة التي تحمل محطات قاعدة للاتصالات المتنقلة وأنظمة اتصالات ساتلية، عند طيرانها إلى منطقة مستهدفة، أن توفر تغطية مستمرة وثابتة بإشارات الاتصالات المتنقلة لفترة طويلة (24 ساعة على الأقل) في منطقة تزيد مساحتها على 30 كيلومتراً مربعاً مما يسمح باستعادة الاتصالات بسرعة والحد من الخسائر في الأرواح والممتلكات في منطقة الكارثة.

ويمكن استخدام مركبة UAV ثابتة الأجنحة وموصولة شبكياً ومزودة بكاميرا ذات إسقاط عمودي ووحدة كهروضوئية للحصول على بيانات نظام المعلومات الجغرافية (GIS) اللازمة لتحقيق الإرسال السريع للبيانات والكفاءة في وضع خريطة ثلاثية الأبعاد للمنطقة المتأثرة بالزلزال، مما يوفر أساساً تستند إليه القرارات المتعلقة بالإنقاذ.

وأثناء التدريبات المتعلقة بنظام الجندي الفردي، يمكن للأفرقة المتقدمة في الموقع الإبلاغ عن المعلومات الرئيسية بشأن عمليات الإنقاذ، وإرسال تسجيلات فيديوية وصور في الوقت الفعلي، ونشر أفرقة الإنقاذ والمعدات بسرعة استناداً إلى بيانات نظام المعلومات الجغرافية، مما يحسن بشكل فعال توقيت ودقة عمليات الإنقاذ في حالات الطوارئ.

الاتصالات في حالات الطوارئ باستخدام المركبات الجوية غير المأهولة: الخطوات المقبلة

يشكل وضع المعايير أحد التحديات التي تواجهها الاتصالات في حالات الطوارئ باستخدام المركبات الجوية غير المأهولة (UAV). وتقوم الصين حالياً بوضع المتطلبات التقنية للاتصالات في حالات الطوارئ التي تؤمنها المحطات القاعدة عالية الارتفاع بواسطة المركبات UAV المربوطة. وبما أن المحطات القاعدة العادية توفر أساساً تغطية أرضية، فإن المركبات UAV تحتاج، بالإضافة إلى ذلك، إلى محطات قاعدة خاصة لتأمين تغطية جوية. وتعتمد المركبات UAV التي تستعمل تكنولوجيا الجيل الخامس اليوم على المعدات العامة لمباني العملاء من الجيل الخامس التي تُستعمل حالياً لتحويل الإشارات 5G إلى إشارات Wi-Fi من أجل الاتصالات؛ وفي المستقبل، ستكون هناك حاجة إلى مطاريف مكرسة ووحدات اتصالات 5G لتحسين التكامل.

3.3 التكنولوجيات الناشئة في مجال التصدي للكوارث والإغاثة منها

تقوم التكنولوجيات الناشئة والأدوات من قبيل تحليل بيانات الاستشعار عن بُعد وأداة المنظمة العالمية للأرصاد الجوية (WMO) لتحليل واستعراض قدرات أنظمة الرصد (OSCAR) [12] بتحليل المعلومات المتعلقة بالكوارث والمساعدة في وضع التدابير المناسبة للتصدي للكوارث والإغاثة منها. وتعكف العديد من وكالات الأمم المتحدة على تطوير هذه الأدوات واستخدامها، ويرد أدناه وصف للبعض منها.

وللحصول على أقصى فائدة من بيانات الاستشعار عن بُعد، تدعو الحاجة إلى وجود وكالة محلية لإدارة الطوارئ كي توجه المعلومات المناسبة إلى الأشخاص في الميدان. ويركز برنامج الأمم المتحدة للمعلومات الفضائية من أجل إدارة الكوارث والاستجابة في حالات الطوارئ (UN-SPIDER) على مساعدة الدول في تطوير القدرة على إدارة الكوارث. ولئن كان هذا البرنامج يساعد في تنظيم منظمات الإغاثة وتدريب موظفيها، فإن منظمات أخرى تتوجه بقدر أكبر نحو البيانات.

وتتضمن أداة المنظمة العالمية للأرصاد الجوية لتحليل واستعراض قدرات أنظمة الرصد جدولاً يبين جميع السواتل المعروفة في الماضي والحاضر والمستقبل لأغراض الأرصاد الجوية ورصد الأرض. ويمكن استخدام هذه الأداة لتحديد مصادر إضافية للبيانات.

ومن المصادر الأخرى لبيانات الاستشعار عن بُعد المحلَلة البرنامج التشغيلي للتطبيقات الساتلية التابع لمعهد الأمم المتحدة للتدريب والبحث (UNOSAT)، وهو برنامج تابع للأمم المتحدة استُحدث لتحسين نفاذ المجتمع الدولي والدول النامية إلى الصور الساتلية وخدمات أنظمة المعلومات الجغرافية.

4.3 استخدام التكنولوجيات الأرضية والساتلية للاستشعار عن بُعد من أجل إدارة الكوارث الطبيعية

تتطلب إدارة الكوارث الطبيعية كماً هائلاً من البيانات الفضائية في أوقات متعددة. ويمثل الاستشعار الساتلي عن بُعد أداة مثالية لإدارة الكوارث لأنه يتيح معلومات على مساحات واسعة وعلى فترات قصيرة. وعلى الرغم من إمكانية استخدامه في جميع مراحل إدارة الكوارث، فإن استخدامه، من الناحية العملية، يكاد يقتصر حتى الآن على عمليات الإنذار والرصد. وفي العقود الأخيرة، استُخدمت التكنولوجيا الساتلية/الفضائية في مرحلتي التأهب للكوارث والإنذار بها فيما يتعلق بالأعاصير المدارية والجفاف والفيضانات.

وتقوم مساعدات الأرصاد الجوية وخدمة الأرصاد الجوية الساتلية وخدمة استكشاف الأرض الساتلية بدور كبير في أنشطة من قبيل ما يلي:

– تحديد المناطق المعرضة للخطر؛

– التنبؤ بالأحوال الجوية وتوقّع تغير المناخ؛

– كشف وتعقب الزلازل وأمواج التسونامي والأعاصير وحرائق الغابات والتسربات النفطية، وما إلى ذلك؛

– تقديم تنبيهات/إنذارات بهذه الكوارث؛

– تقييم الأضرار الناجمة عن هذه الكوارث؛

– توفير المعلومات لتخطيط عمليات الإغاثة؛

– رصد التعافي من الكارثة.

وتوفر هذه الخدمات بيانات مفيدة، إن لم نقل ضرورية، للحفاظ على دقة التنبؤات الجوية وتحسينها، ومراقبة التغيرات المناخية والتنبؤ بها، وجمع المعلومات عن الموارد الطبيعية. ويرد في الجدول 1 ملخص لأهداف الخدمات والتطبيقات المرتبطة بالتكنولوجيات الساتلية.

الجدول 1: الأهداف والتكنولوجيات الساتلية المرتبطة بها

5.3 الاتصالات الساتلية

قدمت الاتصالات الساتلية الدعم لمنظمات الإغاثة الدولية والمناطق المنكوبة والمجتمعات على مدى عقود، وهي عنصر أساسي في عمليات التأهب للكوارث والإغاثة في جميع أنحاء العالم. ويمكن أن توفر الاتصالات الساتلية اتصالات النطاق العريض التي لا تتأثر في أغلب الأحيان بالظروف على الأرض. وأضحى النظام الإيكولوجي لاتصالات الكوارث القائمة على السواتل، المستخدمة على مدى 50 عاماً، أكثر فاعليةً وميسور التكلفة في الوقت الحاضر.

وتعمل الاتصالات الساتلية أيضاً بشكل مستقل عن البنى التحتية للاتصالات المحلية، ويمكن أن تساعد البطاريات الصغيرة وإمدادات الطاقة المستقلة في ضمان الاستمرارية عند تضرر مصادر الطاقة المحلية أثناء وقوع كارثة ما. وتتسم الأجهزة الطرفية للاتصالات الساتلية بالاكتفاء الذاتي. وقد أثبتت، في إطار عمليات نشر متنوعة، أنها يمكن أن تعمل في غضون دقائق من وصولها إلى الموقع.

ويمكن أن تكون معدات الاتصالات في حالات الكوارث مدمجة وخفيفة الوزن ومحمولة باليد مما يتيح لأفرقة الإغاثة تبادل الاتصالات مع قاعدتهم الرئيسية للقيام بمهام عاجلة تتراوح من تحميل تقارير تفصيلية بشأن الأضرار إلى إصدار أوامر متعلقة بالإمدادات.

ويلخص الجدول 2 بعض الخصائص الرئيسية للاتصالات الساتلية التي تجعلها مناسبة بشكل خاص للحد من مخاطر الكوارث وإدارتها.

الجدول 2: الخصائص الرئيسية للاتصالات الساتلية

مرنة

– مثالية للنشر السريع

– تحضير فوري في الموقع بمجرد حدوث كارثة ما

– يمكن أن تراقب وتُقيّد الوصول إلى الخدمات

محمولة

– مطاريف مدمجة مثالية لأي شخص يسافر بمفرده وينتقل من موقع إلى آخر

سهلة الاستخدام

– يمكن أن يوفر التدريب البسيط الخبرات التقنية المطلوبة لتحضير معظم الأجهزة الساتلية واستخدامها

تحقق تغطية عالمية

– توصيلية عن بعد للموقع

– تغطية موسعة النطاق للفريق

موثوقة

– ضمان موثوقية البيانات الهامة

– مستقلة عن البنية التحتية الأرضية

توفر التوصيلية الضرورية

– توفر شبكة توصيل للبنية التحتية الأرضية

– توفر توصيلية بالنطاق العريض بتكلفة لا تستند إلى كثافة النشر

6.3 تحليل البيانات الضخمة من أجل إدارة الكوارث

يعتمد العالم الآن بشكل كبير على تكنولوجيا المعلومات، ومع ظهور البيانات الضخمة أصبح من الممكن اتخاذ القرارات استناداً إلى تحليل البيانات. فتحليل البيانات يسمح للمجتمعات بتكييف استراتيجياتها المتعلقة بإدارة الكوارث للحد من المعاناة البشرية والخسائر الاقتصادية. ويتمثل الهدف الرئيسي لخبراء الحواسيب وواضعي السياسات في استخدام البيانات الضخمة للحصول على المعلومات بأنساق مختلفة وتخزينها من أجل استعمالها بفعالية خلال إدارة الكوارث.

ويمثل تحليل وسائل التواصل الاجتماعي العملية التي تُجمع من خلالها كميات هائلة من البيانات من مواقع وسائل التواصل الاجتماعي ويتم تحليلها، وتكون معظم هذه البيانات شبه مهيكلة أو غير مهيكلة. وتستخدم هذه العملية خوارزميات متنوعة للتعلم الآلي، من قبيل شجرات القرارات، وآلات متجهات الدعم، والغابات العشوائية، ومصنفات بايز البسيطة، والانحدار اللوجستي، والذكاء الاصطناعي من أجل منصة التصدي للكوارث. وتقوم الخوارزميات بتحليل البيانات وتوليد نتائج من هذا التحليل، وتساعد على معاينة النتائج بدقة ومن الزاوية المرغوبة. ويمكن استخدام المعلومات المستخلصة في عمليات البحث والإنقاذ وفي عملية الفرز بعد الكوارث ومن أجل الإغاثة وإعادة التأهيل. وتركز العديد من أدوات الذكاء الاصطناعي والتعلم الآلي على الكيفية التي تقوم بها تحديثات وسائل التواصل الاجتماعي بتوفير مؤشرات عن الحوادث والمساهمة في إذكاء الوعي بالوضع.

وكلما وقعت كارثة، تنشر أعداد هائلة من الرسائل القصيرة والتغريدات في خدمة الشبكات الاجتماعية؛ والمعلومات التي تحتويها قد تكون قيمة جداً – أو لا تكون مهمة. ويمكن تحليل هذه الرسائل والتغريدات باستخدام تقنيات تحليل البيانات الضخمة. ففي اليابان، طور المعهد الوطني لتكنولوجيا المعلومات والاتصالات (NICT) نظامين لتحليل البيانات: نظام تلخيص المعلومات المتعلقة بالكوارث (D-SUMM) ونظام تحليل المعلومات المتعلقة بالكوارث (DISAANA). ويقوم الأول تلقائياً باستخلاص تقارير الكوارث من خدمة الشبكات الاجتماعية وينظمها ويلخصها ويعرض المحتوى بطريقة سهلة الاستخدام. وأما الثاني، فينشر تقارير الكوارث كما هي (مثلاً "وقع زلزال!" أو "ما زلنا نشعر بهزات ارتدادية"). ومن خلال تلخيص تقارير الكوارث لكل منطقة فرعية، يمكن النظام D-SUMM المستعملين من سرعة فهم ما يحدث ومكان الحدث. ويمكن أيضاً تحديد فئات متعددة وعرضها على خريطة، كما يمكن تحديد عدد المرات التي تم فيها الإبلاغ عن عنصر معين، مما يسهل تكوين نظرة عامة عن ظروف الكارثة.

7.3 الذكاء الاصطناعي من أجل إدارة الكوارث

يحاكي الذكاء الاصطناعي عمليات الذكاء البشري بواسطة الآلات، خاصة أنظمة الحاسوب. وتتضمن هذه العمليات التعلم (الحصول على المعلومات والقواعد المستوعَبة في شكل خوارزميات لاستخدام المعلومات) والمنطق (باستخدام القواعد للوصول إلى استنتاجات تقريبية أو محددة) والتصحيح الذاتي. وللعديد من الهواتف الذكية الجديدة والحديثة أيضاً عتاد مصمم على النحو الأمثل للذكاء الاصطناعي.

ويعرَّف التعلم الآلي (ML) على أنه قدرة الآلات على التعلم تلقائياً باستخدام الذكاء الاصطناعي. وينطوي التعلم الآلي على إنشاء خوارزميات يمكنها تعديل نفسها دون تدخل بشري أو برمجتها بشكل صريح لإنتاج مخرجات التعلم. ويتحقق ذلك من خلال تحليل البيانات المهيكلة التي تغذى بها خوارزميات هذه الآلات. وبالتالي فإن عملية التعلم تشمل رصد البيانات ومعالجتها وتحليلها واتخاذ الإجراءات وفقاً لذلك. وقد استفاد الذكاء الاصطناعي من الفرص والمزايا المحتملة للتعلم الآلي والذكاء الاصطناعي فيما يتعلق بمنصة التصدي للكوارث، التي تستخدم التعلم الآلي لتحليل البيانات المتعلقة بالكوارث الطبيعية ومن صنع الإنسان والمجمَّعة من التغريدات في الوقت الفعلي وبشكل تلقائي. وهذه المنصة متاحة لجميع المشاركين في التصدي للكوارث.

وقد تقدم الذكاء الاصطناعي والتعلم الآلي لدرجة أنهما أصبحا يتمتعان بكفاءة عالية في عمليات التنبؤ والتعرف والتصنيف. وتساعد المعلومات الآنية المولدة من خلال تقاسم البيانات المستمدة من الجماهير، إلى جانب تحليل البيانات، في عمليات التصدي والإغاثة والتخفيف من المعاناة.

8.3 إنترنت الأشياء من أجل إدارة الكوارث

إنترنت الأشياء (IoT) هي شبكة "أشياء" (أي أغراض مادية مثل أجهزة الاستشعار الإلكترونية والبرمجيات وغيرها من الأجهزة) موصولة بينياً عبر الإنترنت وتتبادل المعلومات مع أجهزة وأنظمة أخرى. وقد أدت التطورات في مجال الحوسبة السحابية والشبكات اللاسلكية عريضة النطاق وأجهزة الاستشعار نفسها وتحليل البيانات إلى ظهور أنظمة قوية ومتكاملة وآنية لإنترنت الأشياء. وتُستخدم تطبيقات إنترنت الأشياء اليوم في كل القطاعات: الصحة والتعليم والنقل والزراعة والصناعة، إلخ. وفي إدارة الكوارث، يمكن استخدام إنترنت الأشياء لرصد الأخطار الطبيعية التي تظهر فجأة من قبيل الزلازل والانهيارات الوحلية، لإصدار تنبيهات الطوارئ وإرسال البيانات في الوقت الفعلي تقريباً إلى مراكز إدارة الطوارئ وقيادتها، وبالتالي تعزيز قدرات الوقاية من الكوارث والتخفيف من آثارها. وقد سبق أن أطلق مشروع شراكة الجيل الثالث (3GPP) مجموعة من تكنولوجيات إنترنت الأشياء ضيقة النطاق والقائمة على تكنولوجيا التطور الطويل الأجل (LTE) (أي إنترنت الأشياء ضيقة النطاق والاتصالات الآلية المعززة)، التي وسعت نطاق التكنولوجيا LTE لدعم تطبيق أوسع لخدمات إنترنت الأشياء الأكثر كفاءة في استهلاك الطاقة؛ بالإضافة إلى أن تلك التكنولوجيات تنظر في الاتصالات عبر السواتل وغيرها من الشبكات غير الأرضية (إنترنت الأشياء ضيقة النطاق في الشبكات غير الأرضية (NTN NB-IoT)).

9.3 إدارة الكوارث في المدن الذكية

إضافةً إلى إدخال أجيال جديدة من تكنولوجيا المعلومات والاتصالات إلى اتصالات الطوارئ عبر صناعة الاتصالات التقليدية، أبدت البلدان في جميع أنحاء العالم حماساً كبيراً بشأن تطبيق تكنولوجيا المعلومات والاتصالات في إدارة الطوارئ في المدن الذكية التي تسعى إلى بنائها. ويتمثل أحد الجوانب الرئيسية لبناء المدن الذكية في استخدام التكنولوجيات الرقمية لتحسين الاتصالات في حالات الطوارئ. وبتوفير بيانات أشمل وأقرب إلى الوقت الفعلي وأكثر دينامية، يتسنى تنفيذ خطط الاستجابة للطوارئ بشكل سريع وفعال من حيث التكلفة. وتشمل الأنظمة التكنولوجية للطوارئ وأنشطة الطوارئ، التي يمكن ربطها بتطوير المدن الذكية، ما يلي: أنظمة الإنذار المبكر بالكوارث؛ والاستجابة للطوارئ على النحو الأمثل (أي معالجة النداءات في المكاتب الخلفية والعمليات الميدانية من قبيل النشر الاستراتيجي لمركبات الطوارئ)؛ وتطبيقات التنبيه الشخصية (لإرسال بيانات الموقع والبيانات الصوتية إلى خدمات الاستجابة للطوارئ أو إلى الأقارب)؛ والمراقبة الذكية لمنطقة العمليات.

10.3 استخدام أنظمة اتصالات الطوارئ في الأوقات العادية

ينبغي أن تكون أنظمة اتصالات الطوارئ من قبيل وحدات موارد تكنولوجيا المعلومات والاتصالات القابلة للنقل والنشر (MDRU) المستخدمة في حالات الطوارئ مجمعة بعدد كاف قبل وقوع الكارثة. ومع ذلك فإن أياً من هذه الأنظمة المركبة مسبقاً قد تكون عموماً جاهزة منذ سنوات لأن من الصعب جداً تقدير متى ستحدث الكارثة. ولهذا السبب، قد لا تكون هذه الأنظمة فعالة عندما يحين الوقت بسبب مشاكل متصلة بمهارات التشغيل أو حياة البطارية. ولذا يستحسن استخدامها في الحالات العادية، مثلاً كبنية تحتية مؤقتة للاتصالات في المناطق الريفية حيث تكون هذه البنية التحتية غير كافية. انظر الشكل 3 للاطلاع على مثال لإحدى وحدات MDRU التي تمكن التوصيل بين مدرسة ابتدائية واثنتين من القرى المجاورة. وبما أن الأطفال والمزارعين سيتدربون على استخدام النظام، فهذا يعني أنهم سيحصلون على المهارات المطلوبة لتشغيله في إطار التصدي للكوارث.

الشكل 3: استخدام البنية التحتية للاتصالات في منطقة ريفية في الأوقات العادية

المصدر: اليابان [13]

11.3 نظام التوزيع المستقل لتكنولوجيا المعلومات والاتصالات

في حالة وقوع كوارث، تضطلع الحكومات المحلية بعدة أدوار مهمة كأن تكون أول جهة تستجيب للمناطق المتضررة من الكوارث، وتقدم الإسعافات الأولية للمواطنين وتشرف على عمليات الإنقاذ من الحرائق. وتتطلب هذه الأدوار أنظمة تكنولوجيا معلومات واتصالات حكومية تتصل بخوادم موجودة داخل مبانٍ أو خوادم سحابية عن طريق الإنترنت أو شبكات الاتصالات. وعليه، قد يتسبب انقطاع الاتصالات في تعطيل الخدمات الحكومية. ويعد استخدام أنظمة توزيع مستقلة لتكنولوجيا المعلومات والاتصالات أحد الحلول للمساعدة في ضمان استمرارية تقديم الخدمات الحكومية عند تعطل شبكات الاتصالات، ويعتبر كخطة لاستمرارية الأعمال. ووضع المعهد الوطني لتكنولوجيا المعلومات والاتصالات (اليابان) "شبكة Die-Hard" بوصفها نظام توزيع مستقل لتكنولوجيا المعلومات والاتصالات يتضمن شبكة تخزين وترحيل وإرسال مدعومةً بمركبات مخصصة لاتخاذ تدابير مضادة للكوارث. وتتكون شبكة Die-Hard من عدة خوادم متطورة توجد في المقرات الرئيسية مثل قاعات مجالس الحكومات المحلية، وفي المكاتب الموزعة مثل مستشفيات المدينة والمركبات، وفي شبكات الاتصالات مثل الشبكات اللاسلكية Wi-Fi وشبكات التخزين والترحيل والإرسال. [14]

الفصل 4 – أنظمة الإنذار والتنبيه المبكرين

تؤدي الاتصالات/تكنولوجيا المعلومات والاتصالات دوراً حاسماً قبل وقوع الكوارث وأثناءه وبعده. وهي مصدر دعم في جميع مراحل الكوارث، بما في ذلك التأهب والتنبؤ والإنذار المبكر والاستجابة والتعافي. ويتيح التقدم التكنولوجي حالياً تعزيز قدرة التوصيلية على الصمود وضمان توافرها وتسريع استعادتها بعد وقوع الكارثة. غير أن فعالية إدارة الكوارث تعتمد على مدى التأهب، بما يشمل تنفيذ أنظمة الإنذار المبكر وإجراء تدريبات وتمرينات منتظمة. ومن المعترف به جيداً أن أنظمة الإنذار المبكر أدوات بالغة الأهمية لإنقاذ الأرواح خلال الفيضانات وموجات الجفاف والعواصف وحرائق الغابات وغيرها من الأخطار (الزلازل وأمواج التسونامي). وقد زاد الحجم المسجل للخسائر الاقتصادية المرتبطة بالظواهر الجوية-المائية القصوى خلال العقود الخمسة الماضية بقرابة الخمسين، ورغم ذلك فقد انخفض عدد الخسائر العالمية في الأرواح انخفاضاً كبيراً، إلى قرابة العشر، مما يعني أن ملايين الأرواح أُنقذت خلال الفترة نفسها. [15]

1.4 استخدام تكنولوجيا المعلومات والاتصالات لتخطيط أنظمة الإنذار والتنبيه المبكريْن

تستند خارطة الطريق الخاصة بإدارة الكوارث إلى افتراض أن وقوع الكوارث أمر لا مفر منه وأن تنفيذ المبادرات المناسبة لتحقيق الإنذار المبكر بها سيؤدي إلى إنقاذ الأرواح والممتلكات ويحد من وقوع آثار واسعة النطاق ويمكن الإغاثة الفورية ويساعد على التخفيف من آثار المحن المماثلة في المستقبل.

ومن المهم نشر المعلومات قبل وقوع الكوارث وأثناءه وبعده. ففعالية الإنذار المبكر بالكوارث قبل وقوعها تستلزم القدرة على نشر المعلومات المنذِرة بها وتوفر وسائل لنشرها. وعند اللزوم، ينبغي أن يصل الإنذار بالخطر الوشيك في أسرع وقت ممكن إلى كل شخص في المنطقة المحددة.

ومن شأن تكنولوجيات من قبيل برمجيات نظام المعلومات الجغرافية (GIS)، وأنظمة رصد الأرض الساتلية، وإنترنت الأشياء (IoT)، والتحليل الآني باستخدام البيانات الضخمة والحوسبة المتقدمة، وتكنولوجيا الاتصالات المتنقلة، وشبكات التواصل الاجتماعي، والروبوتات، وسلسلة الكتل، أن تُستخدم في إدارة الكوارث ويُسترشد بها في تحقيق منظور إنمائي أكثر استدامة ومرونة.

2.4 نشر أنظمة الإنذار المبكر للحد من مخاطر الكوارث

1.2.4 بروتوكول التنبيه المشترك واستخدامه في أنظمة الإنذار المبكر

بروتوكول التنبيه المشترك (CAP) هو نسق بيانات قائم على لغة الترميز القابلة للامتداد (XML) من أجل تبادل إنذارات الجمهور ومعلومات الطوارئ بين تكنولوجيات التنبيه. ويسمح هذا البروتوكول بإرسال رسالة إنذار بشكل متسق ومتزامن إلى عدة تطبيقات عبر العديد من أنظمة الإنذار. ويعزز البروتوكول فعالية الإنذار ويبسط مهمة تفعيله. ويمكن استلام التنبيهات المقيسة من مصادر متعددة وتشكيلها بحيث تتمكن التطبيقات من معالجتها والاستجابة لها على النحو المرغوب. ومن خلال تقييس البروتوكول لبيانات التنبيهات على اختلاف التهديدات والولايات القضائية وأنظمة الإنذار، يمكن استخدامه أيضاً لكشف الاتجاهات والأنماط في الأنشطة الإنذارية. فقد أجرت الهند دراسات حالة وتجارب باستخدام البروتوكول في أنظمة الإنذار المبكر لنشر المعلومات في حالات الزلازل والفيضانات المفاجئة، وما إلى ذلك. وتستخدم نيوزيلندا أيضاً معلومات البروتوكول للحصول على تنبيهات بالزلازل وأحوال الطقس السيئة وحالات طوارئ الدفاع المدني.

2.2.4 أنظمة الإنذار المبكر بالزلازل وأمواج التسونامي

في حالات الزلازل وأمواج التسونامي، تساعد أنظمة الإنذار المبكر على الحد من الخسائر في الأرواح والأضرار اللاحقة بالممتلكات. ويمكن للتكنولوجيا الحالية أن تكشف الزلازل المتوسطة إلى القوية بسرعة تكفي لإرسال إنذار إلى المواقع خارج مركز الزلزال قبل وصول موجاته المدمرة إليها. وتشكل البيانات الصادرة من محطة واحدة أو من شبكة من المحطات أساس عمليات الإنذار المبكر بالزلازل. ويمكن تعزيز دقة الإنذار وتوقيته باستخدام مزيج من التنبيهات الصادرة من محطات منفردة وشبكات إقليمية لرصد الزلازل. وخلال زلزال من متوسط إلى قوي، يُجمع في نظام بيان التنبيه بالهزات بين التنبيهات الإنذارية ضمن الموقع وعلى الصعيد الإقليمي. وقد تُدمَج في المستقبل أنظمة الإنذار المبكر بالزلازل في الهواتف الذكية، والمركبات، والأجهزة "الذكية"، والعدد المتزايد من الأغراض المستخدمة يومياً المدمجة فيها أجهزة استشعار ورقاقات اتصالات توصلها بشبكة عالمية.

وفي الهند، نُشر أكثر من 100 جهاز استشعار في منطقة جبال الهيمالايا لتوفير الإنذارات المبكرة بالزلازل في مدن شمال الهند للكشف عن هذه الحوادث، وتحديد مواقعها، وتقدير حجمها، وإصدار تنبيهات بها. وفي أعقاب كارثة التسونامي التي وقعت في عام 2004، اتخذت حكومة الهند خطوات لإنشاء أنظمة متينة للإنذار المبكر: أنشأت وزارة علوم الأرض النظام الوطني للإنذار المبكر بالتسونامي في المركز الوطني الهندي لخدمات معلومات المحيطات في حيدر آباد، ولاية أندرا براديش؛ وطورت إدارة الأرصاد الجوية التابعة لهذه الوزارة أنظمة قائمة على تكنولوجيا المعلومات والاتصالات تصدر إنذارات دقيقة وتقارير عن أحوال الطقس في الوقت الفعلي لجميع الوكالات الرئيسية المعنية بإدارة الكوارث.

3.2.4 أنظمة الإنذار المبكر بالأعاصير المدارية

الأعاصير المدارية وأعاصير المحيط الأطلسي وأعاصير المحيط الهادئ هي عواصف تنتج عن اضطرابات جوية حيث يدور الهواء بشكل حلقي حول مركز منخفض الضغط يعرف باسم "العين". وفي النصف الشمالي للكرة الأرضية، تدور الرياح في الاتجاه المعاكس لعقارب الساعة، وتدور في اتجاه عقارب الساعة في نصفها الجنوبي. وتنشأ الأعاصير المدارية بدرجات مختلفة كل عام تقريباً في البحار المحيطة بالهند خلال شهري يونيو ويوليو. وقد تمكنت الهند، بفضل أنظمة الإنذار المبكر المتينة التي أنشأتها، من التصدي بفعالية لإعصاري فايلين (2013) وفاني (2019)، على سبيل المثال، اللذين وصلا إلى اليابسة مع رياح فاقت سرعتها 200 كيلومتر في الساعة وتسببا في هطول أمطار غزيرة. وأثبت رسائل التنبيه المرسلة عبر نظام الإنذار المبكر أنها موجزة ودقيقة. وبينت هذه الرسائل أيضاً مكان ونوع الضرر المتوقع أن يلحق بالمنازل والبنية التحتية. ونتيجة لذلك، كان عدد وفيات الأشخاص والمواشي منخفضاً بشكل كبير.

4.2.4 أجهزة الإنذار المبكر بهطول الأمطار السيلية

تؤدي الأحداث من قبيل انفجارات السحب وهطول الأمطار السيلية/الغزيرة إلى كوارث. وقد استحدثت اليابان الرادار الجوي ذا الصفيف المطاوَر لكشف هطول الأمطار السيلية ومن ثم منع تسببها في وقوع أضرار. ويمكن للرادار رصد الهيكل ثلاثي الأبعاد لمعلومات الهطول (انعكاسية الرادار وسرعة دوبلر) كل ثلاثين ثانية للكشف في مرحلة مبكرة عن السحب المتراكمة الناشئة بسرعة محلياً.

5.2.4 أنظمة الإنذار المبكر بالفيضانات والانهيارات الأرضية والوحلية

يمكن استخدام أنظمة الإنذار المبكر في كوارث من قبيل الفياضات والانهيارات الأرضية والوحلية. ويمكن استخدام التكنولوجيات المطورة حديثاً والمدعَّمة بأجهزة الاستشعار/إنترنت الأشياء لكشف تحركات التربة ومحتوى رطوبتها، إلخ.، وإصدار التنبيهات في الوقت المناسب. ففي بلدية شيوجيري باليابان، حيث يتم الكشف عن مستويات رطوبة التربة باستخدام أجهزة الاستشعار القائمة على إنترنت الأشياء، تُرسل التنبيهات تلقائياً إلى إدارة المخاطر التابعة للبلدية عندما تتجاوز رطوبة التربة قيمة رقمية معينة.

وفي زامبيا، شارك الاتحاد الدولي للاتصالات مع الهيئة الزامبية لتكنولوجيا المعلومات والاتصالات في تمويل مشروع لإنشاء نظامين للإنذار المبكر في مجتمعين محليين، هما جزيرة مبيتا وقرية كاسايا. وينشر هذان النظامان تنبيهات بالفيضانات والكوارث الوشيكة على المجتمعين المحليين الواقعين بالقرب من نهر زامبيزي. وسيُستخدم النظامان أيضاً لأغراض السلامة العامة إذ يُيسران تبادل المعلومات بين المجتمعات المحلية والهيئات الحكومية.

3.4 أنظمة بث الإنذارات في حالات الطوارئ

يمكن بث رسائل التنبيه أيضاً عبر الراديو والتلفزيون والتلفزيون الكبلي والإذاعة الساتلية المباشرة. وتستخدم الصين ونيوزيلندا والولايات المتحدة والعديد من البلدان الأخرى أنظمة لبث الإنذارات في حالات الطوارئ. فالولايات المتحدة، على سبيل المثال، ترسل رسائل التنبيه عن طريق البث الراديوي والتلفزيوني والتلفزيون الكبلي والإذاعة الساتلية المباشرة. وهناك نظام آخر، هو نظام التنبيه اللاسلكي في حالات الطوارئ، يمكنه إرسال رسائل التنبيه إلى الهواتف المتنقلة في مناطق مستهدفة (ويمكنه أيضاً إرسال تنبيهات في حالات اختطاف الأطفال). وفي الصين، يجري تحسين شبكات الجيل الرابع (4G) بشكل متواصل لتمكين المشتركين في الخدمات المتنقلة من أن يتلقوا في الوقت المناسب رسائل التنبيه الحيوية في حالات الطوارئ. وقد طورت الصين نظاماً إذاعياً يسمى Tuibida، وهو عبارة عن بنية تحتية للإنترنت المتنقلة قائمة على البث المباشر.

4.4 تكنولوجيا أنظمة الإنذار والتنبيه المبكرين

1.4.4 أنظمة الإنذار المبكر بأخطار متعددة

يعترف إطار سينداي للحد من مخاطر الكوارث للفترة 2030-2015 بفوائد أنظمة الإنذار المبكر بأخطار متعددة، ويكرّسها في إحدى غاياته العالمية السبع (الغاية (ز): "الزيادة بدرجة كبيرة فيما هو متوافر من نظم الإنذار المبكر بالأخطار المتعددة ومن المعلومات والتقييمات عن مخاطر الكوارث وفي إمكانية استفادة الناس بها بحلول عام 2030").

ويحث هذا الإطار على إحداث تغيير في النموذج الفكري لكيفية استحداث المعلومات المتعلقة بالمخاطر وتقييمها واستخدامها في أنظمة الإنذار المبكر بأخطار متعددة، واستراتيجيات الحد من مخاطر الكوارث، والسياسات الحكومية. وخلال جلسة نقاش عُقدت في مايو 2018 بشأن أنظمة الإنذار المبكر، أوضح أحد خبراء المنظمة العالمية للأرصاد الجوية (WMO) أدوات المنظمة التي يمكن أن تستفيد منها الأنشطة الوطنية للإنذار والتنبيه المبكرين، من قبيل القائمة المرجعية لأنظمة الإنذار المبكر بأخطار متعددة (المتاحة في الموقع الإلكتروني للمنظمة) ومبادرة المخاطر المناخية وأنظمة الإنذار المبكر. وقد اعتمدت المنظمة العالمية للأرصاد الجوية أيضاً بروتوكول التنبيه المشترك (ITU-T X.1303) ومنصة التنبيه المسماة "مركز التنبيه" (Alert Hub). ويهدف النظام العالمي للتنبيه بأخطار متعددة إلى تقديم معلومات موثوقة وإسداء المشورة إلى وكالات الأمم المتحدة والمجتمع الإنساني فيما يتعلق بالعمليات التشغيلية والعمليات المتعلقة بصنع القرار في الأجل الطويل.

2.4.4 النظام العام المتكامل للتنبيه والإنذار

يستخدم النظام العام المتكامل للتنبيه والإنذار (IPAWS) التابع للوكالة الفيدرالية لإدارة الطوارئ (FEMA) معايير التكنولوجيا والمعلومات لربط العديد من البنى التحتية لتكنولوجيا الاتصالات من القطاع الخاص، مما يمكنها من إرسال رسالة واحدة لحالات الطوارئ في وقت واحد إلى العديد من مسارات النشر العام (مثل الراديو والتلفزيون والأجهزة المتنقلة والأنظمة الموصولة بالإنترنت والمواقع الإلكترونية والتطبيقات).

وتمثلت الخطوة الأولى الحاسمة للشروع في هذا الحل القائم على التصميم في استخدام بروتوكول التنبيه المشترك (CAP) ومعايير تقنية أخرى. وعندما تكون خدمات التنبيه والإنذار ممثله مع البروتوكول CAP ومدمجة في النظام IPAWS، فإن المنصة تعمل كوسيط، حيث تستيقن من الرسائل الموجهة من المستخدمين المصرح لهم بنشر المعلومات الأصلية لحالات الطوارئ إلى السكان في منطقة جغرافية محددة بسرعة من خلال مسارات نشر متعددة. وبالتالي فإن المعلومات الواردة من مصدر واحد بشأن حادث واحد يمكنها الوصول إلى الجمهور عن طريق الراديو والتلفزيون والهواتف اللاسلكية وخدمات الإنترنت والتكنولوجيات المستقبلية المتصلة بالنظام العام المتكامل للتنبيه والممتثلة لبروتوكول التنبيه المشترك. ويمكّن النهج القائم على المعايير من إنشاء معمارية وطنية للتنبيه والإنذار من أجل التكيف مع التكنولوجيات المستقبلية والاستفادة منها. ويؤدي استخدام مسارات نشر متعددة من أجل التنبيهات العامة إلى زيادة احتمال وصول الرسالة إلى هدفها بشكل كبير. وإضافة إلى ذلك، يؤدي نشر رسالة تنبيه واحدة وفقً بروتوكول التنبيه المشترك في نفس الوقت عبر مسارات متعددة، إلى تقليص الوقت اللازم لإرسال التنبيهات وعبء العمل الذي يتحمله المسؤولون عن إدارة حالات الطوارئ، وإلا فإنهم سيضطرون إلى إعداد وإرسال تنبيهات متعددة ومنفصلة بنسق مناسب لكل قناة. ويسرِّع النهج القائم على المعايير للنظام IPAWS إيصال المعلومات الهامة والحيوية.

5.4 أنظمة الإنذار المبكر والاستشعار عن بُعد

على نحو ما نوقش سابقاً، تعتبر تكنولوجيا المعلومات والاتصالات مصدر دعم في جميع مراحل الكوارث، بما في ذلك التنبؤ وتحليل قابلية التأثر وتقييم المخاطر والإنذار المبكر والتعافي بعد الكارثة. فالمعلومات المتعلقة بالإنذار المبكر تُجمع باستخدام أنظمة الاستشعار عن بُعد (السواتل، الرادارات، أنظمة القياس عن بُعد والأرصاد الجوية، التكنولوجيات الساتلية للاستشعار من آلة إلى آلة، إلخ.) وتُنشر من خلال وسائط متنوعة. ويتطلب هذا الأمر وكالة محلية لإدارة الطوارئ لتوجيه المعلومات المناسبة إلى الأشخاص المناسبين في المجال. وتقدَّم في القسم 3.3 معلومات مفصلة عن دور برنامج الأمم المتحدة للمعلومات الفضائية من أجل إدارة الكوارث والاستجابة في حالات الطوارئ (UN-SPIDER)، والمنظمة العالمية للأرصاد الجوية (WMO)، والبرنامج التشغيلي للتطبيقات الساتلية التابع لمعهد الأمم المتحدة للتدريب والبحث (UNOSAT). وتغطي التوصية ITU-R RS.1859 استخدام الأنظمة الوطنية للاستشعار عن بُعد من أجل جمع البيانات في حالة وقوع كارثة.

وعلى الصعيد الوطني، طورت اليابان الرادار الجوي ذا الصفيف المطاوَر لكشف هطول الأمطار السيلية ومنع تسببها في أضرار (انظر القسم 4.2.4).

وفي الهند، قام المركز الهندي للاستشعار عن بُعد التابع لمنظمة الأبحاث الفضائية في الهند (ISRO)، إلى جانب منظمات أخرى، مثل هيئة المسح الجيولوجي في الهند ومكتب المعايير الهندية ومنظمة حظر الأسلحة الكيميائية (OPCW)، بوضع خرائط تقسم الهند إلى مناطق على أساس قابلية التأثر بالأخطار، باستخدام بيانات الاستشعار. وهذه الخرائط مفيدة جداً في أنشطة التخطيط قبل الكوارث، وأنشطة الوقاية من الكوارث والتخفيف من آثارها. وتقدم المنصة الجيولوجية التابعة لمنظمة الأبحاث الفضائية في الهند، BHUVAN، مجموعة واسعة من الخدمات استنادا إلى خرائط المسح الجيولوجي.

وترسل الوكالات الهندية للإنذار المبكر معلومات مهمة مستمدة من بيانات الاستشعار الساتلي إلى البلدان المجاورة وإلى العديد من الوكالات المماثلة في المحيط الهندي ومنطقة آسيا والمحيط الهادئ. والنظام الهندي للإنذار المبكر هو أيضاً جزء من النظام العالمي للاتصالات (GTS) المعني بالمراقبة العالمية للطقس (WWW) والتابع للمنظمة العالمية للأرصاد الجوية.

وبالمثل، تؤدي مساعدات الأرصاد الجوية وخدمة الأرصاد الجوية الساتلية وخدمة استكشاف الأرض الساتلية دوراً رئيسياً في أنشطة الإنذار المبكر والاستشعار عن بُعد في الولايات المتحدة الأمريكية (انظر القسم 4.3 للاطلاع على وصف لذلك).

6.4 أنظمة المعلومات والإغاثة في حالات الطوارئ

تمثل مواجهة الكوارث الطبيعية تحدياً أمام الحكومات والشركات الخاصة على السواء. وتضفي حاجة الحكومات والشركات الخاصة إلى معالجة المعلومات بسرعة ودقة أهمية بالغة على الاتصالات. ويمكن استخدام أنظمة المعلومات لوضع الإجراءات المناسبة وتحديد المسؤوليات واتخاذ القرارات، مما يؤدي إلى تحسين كفاءة إدارة الكوارث وفعاليتها. وتدعم أنظمة المعلومات أنشطة الحكومات والشركات لاستعادة الثقة وإعادة بناء السمعة والحفاظ على القدرة على العمل.

ففي الهند، على سبيل المثال، تسنى بفضل وضع إجراءات وبروتوكولات وتحديد المسؤوليات وإرساء هياكل لصنع القرار، تقاسم بيانات دقيقة بشأن مساري إعصاري فايلين (2013) وفاني (2019) على الصعيد الوطني وعلى مستوى الولايات وعلى الصعيد المحلي، مما أدى إلى الحد بشكلٍ كبير من عدد الوفيات الناجمة عن هذين الإعصارين. وبالإضافة إلى ذلك، دُعم الإنذار المبكر الصادر عن الإدارة الهندية للأرصاد الجوية بأنشطة للتأهب للكوارث والتخفيف من آثارها على مستوى حكومات الولايات: تم توفير المأوى والطعام ووضع نظام للتطوع وإجراء تدريبات منتظمة وإعداد إجراءات تشغيلية معيارية لإدارة الكوارث على مستوى الولايات والقرى.

استعمال وسائل التواصل الاجتماعي

يمكن أن تكون وسائل التواصل الاجتماعي مفيدة جداً في عمليات الإغاثة في حالات الكوارث، ليس لغرض الاتصالات الفردية فحسب، وإنما أيضاً لجمع المعلومات عن الأضرار من أجل المستجيبين الأوائل. ففي اليابان، على سبيل المثال، استُخدمت وسائل التواصل الاجتماعي بشكل مستمر خلال الفيضانات التي حدثت مؤخراً بسبب العواصف الشديدة والأمطار الغزيرة. ويقوم نظام تلخيص المعلومات المتعلقة بالكوارث التابع للمعهد الوطني لتكنولوجيا المعلومات والاتصالات (NICT) تلقائياً باستخلاص تقارير الكوارث من خدمة الشبكات الاجتماعية وينظمها ويلخصها ويعرض المحتوى بطريقة سهلة الاستخدام. ويقوم النظام بتنبيه المستخدمين ليس فقط عن طريق استرداد المعلومات المتعلقة بالكوارث ولكن أيضًا أي بيانات متناقضة.

وفي الهند، لجأت حكومة ولاية كيرالا إلى وسائل التواصل الاجتماعي لتبادل المعلومات عن التبرعات لصندوق الإغاثة في حالات الشدة الذي أنشأه رئيس الوزراء [16] . وعندما اتضح نطاق الكارثة، تواصلت حكومة ولاية كيرالا مع مهندسي البرمجيات من جميع أنحاء العالم، وطلبت منهم الانضمام إلى خلية تكنولوجيا المعلومات التي تديرها حكومة الولاية لإنشاء موقع إلكتروني. وسمح هذا الموقع الإلكتروني للمتطوعين الذين كانوا يساعدون في الإغاثة من الكوارث في العديد من المناطق المتضررة من الفيضانات في ولاية كيرالا بالإبلاغ عن احتياجات الأشخاص الذين تقطعت بهم السبل حتى تتمكن السلطات من الاستجابة في الوقت المناسب. وبالمثل، قامت أخوية لطلاب الهندسة الميكانيكية في كلية للهندسة تديرها الحكومة في ولاية كيرالا بإنشاء مجموعة تُعرف باسم Inspire. وقامت المجموعة ببناء أكثر من 100 بنك قدرة كهربائية مؤقتة وتوزيعها على العاجزين عن الاتصال بعائلاتهم في المناطق المتضررة من الفيضانات ومخيمات الإغاثة. ويمكن لبنك القدرة الكهربائية أن يعزز شحن الهاتف المتنقل بنسبة 20 في المائة في دقائق، الأمر الذي يمكن أن يكون حاسماً للأشخاص المقطوعة عن الكهرباء. وفي حالة أخرى، خلال فيضان تشياني عام 2015، استخدم الناس وسائل التواصل الاجتماعي على نطاق واسع للاتصال بالعالم الخارجي. ومُدت الآلاف من أيادي العون في هذه المحنة. فتوجه سكان تشيناي إلى وسائل التواصل الاجتماعي لعرض منازلهم على الغرباء الذين يبحثون عن مأوى من الأمطار والفيضانات. واستخدم الضحايا والمتطوعون على حدٍ سواء الوسمين #ChennaiFloods و #ChennaiRainHelps لإيجاد/تقديم المأوى والطعام ووسائل النقل وحتى إعادة شحن الهواتف المتنقلة، والإبلاغ بأرقام خطوط المساعدة الحكومية، وتقديم معلومات عن المنظمات غير الحكومية التي تقدم المساعدة، إلخ.

ويمكن أن تؤدي معلومات الكوارث وبيانات، والتنظيم الفعال لعمليات الإغاثة والإنقاذ، واستعمال وسائل التواصل الاجتماعي، ومشاركة المجتمع في عمليات الإغاثة، إلى التقليل بشكلٍ كبير من الخسائر البشرية والحيوانية وتعزيز الانتعاش الاقتصادي السريع.

الفصل 5 – التدريبات والتمرينات

تؤدي التدريبات والتمرينات دوراً هاماً في التحضير لإدارة الطوارئ إذ تساعد على تحفيز القدرات والتدريب بحيث يتمكن الأشخاص من الاستجابة على النحو المتوقع عند حدوث كارثة حقيقية. ولهذه التدريبات والتمرينات أهداف عديدة منها ما حُدد أدناه.

‒ تقييم برنامج التأهب وتحديد الاختلالات التخطيطية والإجرائية: قد لا تخضع برامج التأهب للاختبار والتحديث أو لا تكون قادرة على التكيف مع الحالات الجديدة. ويمكن أن تكشف تدريبات الاتصالات في حالات الكوارث عن أوجه قصور في البرنامج وتتحقق من قدرته على التكيف مع الحالات غير المتوقعة وتقدر مدى الحاجة إلى إدخال تعديلات وتحسينات.

‒ تحسين القدرات على التفاعل مع الأحداث الحقيقية: يمكن أن تساعد تدريبات الاتصالات في حالات الطوارئ في التحقق من تطبيقات التكنولوجيات الجديدة وموارد المعلومات والاتصالات، وتقييم قدرات المعدات الجديدة، وتعزيز القدرة على دعم الاتصالات في حالات الطوارئ. ويمكنها أيضاً أن تبين مدى قدرات الموارد المتوفرة وتحدد ثغرات الموارد.

‒ تحسين التنسيق بين الأفرقة والمنظمات والكيانات الداخلية والخارجية، ورفع مستوى الدعم على الصعيد الإقليمي: تساعد التدريبات على تعزيز القدرة على تنسيق عمليات الاستجابة السريعة ومتعددة الإدارات، وتحسين الاتصال والتنسيق بين المعنيين بحالات الطوارئ من منظمات وأفراد.

‒ تدريب فريق الاتصالات في حالات الطوارئ: تساعد تدريبات الطوارئ في تحسين قدرة قائد الفريق على التحليل واتخاذ القرارات والتنظيم والتنسيق. وتساعد هذه التدريبات موظفي الاتصالات على فهم الأدوار والمسؤوليات في الموقع. ويمكنها أن تساعد أيضاً في رفع مستوى الوعي والفهم فيما يتعلق بالأخطار وآثارها المحتملة، والحد من الهلع، وتعزيز التعاون مع الحكومة والإدارات التابعة لها، من أجل تحسين القدرة الاجتماعية العامة على الاستجابة لحالات الطوارئ.

وخلال فترة الدراسة، أعدت لجنة الدراسات 2 مشروع مبادئ توجيهية [17] يتضمن إرشادات قابلة للتكييف أو التطوير ويمكن للحكومات والمنظمات في البلدان النامية والدول الجزرية الصغيرة النامية وأقل البلدان نمواً استخدامها لإجراء تمرينات وتدريبات على الاتصالات في حالات الطوارئ على الصعيد الوطني. ويرد ملخص العناصر الرئيسية في القسم 1.5 أدناه. ويتيح إجراء تدريبات وتمرينات منتظمة فوائد واضحة ويمكن أن يساعد المنظمات المعنية بالتأهب للكوارث فيما يلي:

– اختبار التأهب للحفاظ على الاتصالات واستعادتها في حالات الطوارئ؛

– تقييم مدى ملاءمة الإجراءات والسياسات والأنظمة المتعلقة بالاتصالات في حالات الطوارئ؛

– إدخال تحسينات على الخطط الوطنية للاتصالات في حالات الطوارئ بناءً على نتائج التمرينات؛

– زيادة توعية أصحاب المصلحة بنقاط القوة والثغرات المحتملة في تخطيط تغطية الاتصالات واستمراريتها؛

– تمكين التعلم العملي في بيئة آمنة؛

– تقييم تخصيص الموارد والقوى العاملة بين أصحاب المصلحة، مع ملاحظة الثغرات والتداخلات المحتملة؛

– إنشاء الأفرقة وبناء علاقات عمل قوية؛

– تطوير التعاون الشامل لعدة قطاعات واختباره؛

– إشراك أصحاب المصلحة وتحفيزهم على التنسيق بشكل أوثق بشأن إجراءات التأهب؛

– ضمان تمتع المسؤولين عن الاستجابة لحالات الطوارئ بالكفاءات المطلوبة في مجال الاتصالات؛

– تقييم الاتصالات بين مختلف أصحاب المصلحة وزيادة إمكانية التشغيل البيني؛

– بناء ثقافة التحسين المستمر؛

– زيادة قدرة شبكات الاتصالات على الصمود.

1.5 مبادئ توجيهية بشأن إعداد وإجراء تمرينات وتدريبات على الاتصالات في حالات الكوارث

يقدم مشروع المبادئ التوجيهية الذي أعدته لجنة الدراسات 2 إرشادات شاملة إلى الجهات المعنية بتخطيط وإجراء تدريب أو تمرين. ويمكن تكييف هذه المبادئ التوجيهية مع حجم أو نوع التدريب أو التمرين ومع الاحتياجات الخاصة بالبلد المعني أو المنظمات المعنية. ويرد أدناه ملخص العناصر أو الخطوات الرئيسية في تخطيط أو إجراء تدريب أو تمرين.

‒ البدء بوضع مذكرة مفاهيمية تؤكد الأهداف.

‒ التأكد من أن الإدارة العليا تدعم تنظيم التمرين.

‒ تشكيل فريق تخطيط/تيسير من أجل تخطيط التمرين بدقة.

‒ كتابة السيناريو.

‒ وضع خطة للتقييم.

‒ إجراء التمرين.

‒ تسجيل التمرين بالتفصيل لتيسير المتابعة واستخلاص الدروس.

‒ عقد جلسة استماع للمشاركين لتحديد ثغرات التأهب، وتعزيز العناصر المطبقة بشكل جيد، وتحديد الدروس المستفادة ونقاط القوة والضعف.

‒ إجراء استعراض بعد الإجراء لضمان اتخاذ الخطوات التالية بطريقة مهيكلة.

‒ تحديد وتعيين أهداف للإجراءات التصحيحية.

‒ تحديث الخطط والسياسات والإجراءات والتجهيزات المتعلقة بالاستجابة على النحو المطلوب لأخذ النتائج في الاعتبار.

‒ رصد التقدم المحرز باستمرار ومواصلة الالتزام بدعم برنامج التحسين المستمر من خلال إجراء التدريبات/التمرينات بانتظام.

2.5 تقييم الخطط وتحديثها

ينبغي استخدام نتائج التدريبات أو التمرينات، على النحو الملاحظ عند استعراض ما بعد الإجراء وفي جلسات الاستماع للمشاركين، لوضع خطة عمل للمجالات التي تشملها الخطة الوطنية للاتصالات في حالات الطوارئ أو السياسات والإجراءات ذات الصلة والتي تحتاج إلى تحسين أو تعديل، ولتحديد مواطن القوة. ولتأمين الدعم الإداري لبرنامج منتظم ومتواصل من التدريبات والتمرينات فإن من بالغ الأهمية إظهار أثر البرنامج.

إضافة إلى ذلك، يتطلب بناء ثقافة التحسين المستمر تعزيز الزخم الناتج عن الاستعراض بعد الإجراء بتحويل نقاط المحددة للتحسين إلى ممارسات جيدة. وبدمج مبدأ تسجيل متابعة وإنهاء الإجراءات التي لها تأثير إيجابي على تخطيط عمليات التأهب وتعيين الأطراف المسؤولة وعقد اجتماعات منتظمة للتحسين، يمكن للمنظمة الدفع بالتحسينات إلى النسخة التالية من خطة التأهب للطوارئ، بما في ذلك التمرين التالي. وينبغي أن تستمر هذه العملية بين كل تدريب أو تمرين وخلاله، إذ إنها ستساعد على بناء الزخم من أجل منهجية التحسين المستمر للخطط الوطنية للاتصالات في حالات الطوارئ.

الفصل 6 – دراسات الحالة القطرية والصناعية

يلخص هذا القسم دراسات الحالة القُطرية والصناعية المقدمة بشأن المسألة 5/2 خلال فترة الدراسة. وهناك خمس فئات من دراسات الحالة: البيئة السياساتية والتنظيمية التمكينية؛ وتكنولوجيات الاتصالات في حالات الكوارث؛ وأنظمة الإنذار والتنبيه المبكرين؛ والتدريبات والتمرينات؛ ودراسات حالة بشأن مواضيع أخرى. وتُبيَّن دراسات الحالة بالتفصيل في الملحق 1 بهذا التقرير؛ ويقدم الجدول 3 قائمة بعناوين دراسات الحالة والبلدان المقدمة لها والأقسام ذات الصلة بكل موضوع في الملحق 1.

الجدول 3: دراسات الحالة

الموضوع

البلد

الكيان

عنوان دراسة الحالة

الفقرة

البيئة السياساتية والتنظيمية التمكينية

الهند

الأطر السياساتية المتعلقة بتكنولوجيا المعلومات والاتصالات وإدارة الكوارث

1.1.A1

الهند

أهمية تكنولوجيا المعلومات والاتصالات في إدارة الكوارث

2.1.A1

هايتي

الاتصالات في حالات الطوارئ في إطار فريق العمل القطاعي في هايتي

3.1.A1

عالمي

برنامج الأغذية العالمي (WFP)

القائمة المرجعية لتأهب الاتصالات في حالات الطوارئ

4.1.A1

نيوزيلندا

الإنذار المبكر القائم على بروتوكول الإنذار المشترك (CAP)

5.1.A1

بوروندي

استخدام تكنولوجيا المعلومات والاتصالات في إدارة آثار الفيضانات

6.1.A1

عدة بلدان

حلقة دراسية إلكترونية عامة بشأن البيئة السياساتية التمكينية لإدارة الكوارث، بما في ذلك التصدي لجائحة كوفيد-19

4.A4

تكنولوجيات الاتصالات في حالات الكوارث

الصين

شركة اتصالات الصين

تكامل موارد شبكة اتصالات الطوارئ الفضائية والأرضية

1.2.A1‎

الهند

الأطر السياساتية المتعلقة بتكنولوجيا المعلومات والاتصالات وإدارة الكوارث
(التطبيق Fisher Friend Mobil)

1.1.A1

الصين

الإدارة الذكية للاتصالات في حالات الطوارئ

2.2.A1

الصين

خدمات وشبكات الاتصالات في حالات الطوارئ

3.2.A1

الهند

دور منصات التواصل الاجتماعي

4.2.A1

الصين

تقديم خدمات الاتصالات في مناطق الكوارث

5.2.A1

اليابان

نظام الحوسبة السحابية القابل للنفاذ محلياً

6.2.A1

الولايات المتحدة

شركة Loon LLC

الحلول المدعومة بالبالونات من أجل التأهب والاتصالات في الطوارئ

7.2.A1

الصين

استخدام النموذج الجامع بين النطاق Ka والجيل الرابع (Ka+4G) في الاستجابة لحالات الطوارئ والإغاثة في حالات الكوارث

8.2.A1

أوروبا

رابطة مشغلي السواتل في أوروبا والشرق الأوسط وإفريقيا (ESOA)

التوصيلية الساتلية من أجل الإنذار المبكر (مكافحة حرائق الغابات ورصد سدود احتجاز المخلفات)

9.2.A1

اليابان

المعهد الوطني لتكنولوجيا المعلومات والاتصالات (NICT)

نظام “SOCDA” القائم على الدردشة الروبوتية من أجل إدارة الكوارث

10.2.A1

اليابان

المعهد الوطني لتكنولوجيا المعلومات والاتصالات (NICT)

نظام توزيع مستقل لتكنولوجيا المعلومات والاتصالات

11.2.A1

عالمي

لجنة الدراسات 11 لقطاع تقييس الاتصالات

معمارية التشوير الخاص بالنشر السريع لشبكة الاتصالات في حالات الطوارئ لاستخدامها في حالات الكوارث الطبيعية

8.A3

عالمي

فرقة العمل 4A التابعة لقطاع الاتصالات الراديوية

النفاذ إلى الإنترنت عريض النطاق على الصعيد العالمي بواسطة أنظمة الخدمة الثابتة الساتلية

7.A3‎

عالمي

لجنة الدراسات 11 لقطاع تقييس الاتصالات

النشر السريع لشبكة الاتصالات في حالات الطوارئ

8.A3

عالمي

لجنة الدراسات 5 لقطاع الاتصالات الراديوية

الأنظمة الثابتة اللاسلكية للتخفيف من عواقب الكوارث وعمليات الإغاثة

9.A3

عالمي

فرقة العمل 4B التابعة لقطاع الاتصالات الراديوية

الأنظمة الساتلية

10.A3

عالمي

فرقة العمل 5A التابعة لقطاع الاتصالات الراديوية

حماية الجمهور والإغاثة في حالات الكوارث

11.A3

عالمي

فرقة العمل 5D التابعة لقطاع الاتصالات الراديوية

الاتصالات المتنقلة الدولية من أجل حماية الجمهور والإغاثة في حالات الكوارث

12.A3

عدة بلدان

جلسة بشأن التدريبات على إدارة الكوارث والتكنولوجيات الناشئة في مجال إدارة الكوارث

2.A4

أنظمة الإنذار والتنبيه المبكرين

الهند

نظام الإنذار المبكر بالزلازل القائم على بروتوكول التنبيه المشترك (CAP)

1.3.A1

الهند

الأطر السياساتية المتعلقة بتكنولوجيا المعلومات والاتصالات وإدارة الكوارث

1.1.A1

أوروبا

رابطة مشغلي السواتل في أوروبا والشرق الأوسط وإفريقيا (ESOA)

التوصيلية الساتلية من أجل الإنذار المبكر (الإنذار المبكر بالفيضانات والزلال والكشف عن التسونامي)

9.2.A1

الهند

تنفيذ تجربة لبروتوكول الإنذار المشترك (CAP)

2.3.A1

الصين

شركة اتصالات الصين

التأهب للكوارث باستخدام تكنولوجيا المعلومات والاتصالات

3.3.A1

البرازيل

تنفيذ إنذارات الطوارئ

4.3.A1

اليابان

المعهد الوطني لتكنولوجيا المعلومات والاتصالات (NICT)

الإنذار المبكر وجمع المعلومات حول الكوارث

5.3.A1

اليابان

التكنولوجيات المتقدمة في مجال الإنذار المبكر

6.3.A1

الصين

تنبيهات الطوارئ باستعمال خدمة Tuibida

7.3.A1

الولايات المتحدة

حالة أنشطة الاستشعار عن بُعد

8.3.A1

الهند

رصد مسارات الأعاصير المدارية والتنبؤ بها بدقة

9.3.A1

الولايات المتحدة

أنظمة التنبيه والإنذار

10.3.A1

عالمي

لجنة الدراسات 2 لقطاع تقييس الاتصالات

إطار إدارة الكوارث من أجل أنظمة الإغاثة في حالات الكوارث

6.A3

عدة بلدان

حلقة نقاش بشأن أنظمة الإنذار المبكر

1.A4

التدريبات أو التمارين

الصين

تدريبات على الاتصالات في حالات الكوارث

1.4.A1

الجزائر

تمرين لمحاكاة تنفيذ خطة تنظيم استجابة الأمن المدني للاتصالات

2.4.A1

الصين

شركة اتصالات الصين

تكامل موارد شبكة اتصالات الطوارئ الفضائية والأرضية

1.2.A1

اليابان

المعهد الوطني لتكنولوجيا المعلومات والاتصالات (NICT)

نظام “SOCDA” القائم على الدردشة الروبوتية من أجل إدارة الكوارث

10.2.A1

اليابان

المعهد الوطني لتكنولوجيا المعلومات والاتصالات (NICT)

نظام توزيع مستقل لتكنولوجيا المعلومات والاتصالات

11.2.A1

عدة بلدان

جلسة بشأن التدريبات على إدارة الكوارث والتكنولوجيات الناشئة في مجال إدارة الكوارث

2.A4

عدة بلدان

جلسة بشأن إجراء تدريبات وتمرينات على الاتصالات في حالات الطوارئ على المستوى الوطني: مبادئ توجيهية للدول الجزرية الصغيرة النامية (SID) وأقل البلدان نمواً (LDC)

3.A4

مواضيع أخرى

اليابان

إحصاءات الكوارث على الصعيد العالمي

1.5.A1

اليابان

الأنظمة الموضوعة مسبقاً للاتصالات في حالات الطوارئ

2.5.A1

جمهورية الكونغو الديمقراطية

مكافحة مرض فيروس إيبولا

3.5.A1

الولايات المتحدة

فيسبوك

برنامج خرائط الكوارث

4.5.A1

الصين

استخدام تكنولوجيا المعلومات والاتصالات في مكافحة جانحة كوفيد-19

5.5.A1

الولايات المتحدة

التصدي لجائحة كوفيد-19

6.5.A1

عالمي

لجنة الدراسات 15 لقطاع تقييس الاتصالات

إطار لإدارة الكوارث من أجل قدرة الشبكات على الصمود والتعافي

1.A3

عالمي

فرقة العمل 7C التابعة لقطاع الاتصالات الراديوية

أجهزة الاستشعار عن بُعد

3.A3

عالمي

لجنة الدراسات 2 لقطاع تقييس الاتصالات

مصطلحات وتعاريف بشأن أنظمة الإغاثة في حالات الكوارث وقدرة الشبكات على الصمود والتعافي

5.A3

عدة بلدان

حلقة دراسية إلكترونية عامة بشأن البيئة السياساتية التمكينية لإدارة الكوارث، بما في ذلك التصدي لجائحة كوفيد-19

4.A4

الفصل 7 – الممارسات الجيدة والمبادئ التوجيهية والاستنتاجات

خلال فترة الدراسة، عقد فريق المسألة 5/2 ورش عمل/جلسات بشأن أربعة مواضيع: أنظمة الإنذار المبكر؛ التدريبات على إدارة الكوارث والتكنولوجيات الناشئة في مجال إدارة الكوارث؛ إجراء تدريبات وتمرينات على استخدام تكنولوجيا المعلومات والاتصالات في حالات الطوارئ على المستوى الوطني من أجل الدول الجزرية الصغيرة النامية وأقل البلدان نمواً؛ تهيئة بيئة سياساتية تمكينية لإدارة الكوارث، بما في ذلك التصدي لجائحة كوفيد-19.

1.7 تحليل وتحديد المبادئ التوجيهية المتعلقة بأفضل الممارسات والدروس المستفادة

انبثقت أفضل الممارسات والمبادئ التوجيهية التالية عن المناقشات والمداولات التي دارت خلال ورش العمل/الجلسات والمساهمات التي قُدمت إليها وآراء الخبراء التي أُبديت في إطارها.

(ألف) أنظمة الإنذار المبكر

‒ وضع احتياجات البلدان النامية في الاعتبار: يجب أن تلبي أنظمة التنبيه احتياجات البلدان النامية وتأخذ في الحسبان مستوى التكنولوجيات المستخدمة.

‒ ضمان المرونة: من بالغ الأهمية اعتماد نهج مرن إزاء تصميم وتكييف واختبار أنظمة التنبيه بالأخطار المتعددة التي تتعرض لها البلدان النامية.

‒ ضمان المرونة التنظيمية: من بالغ الأهمية وضع سياسات تمكّن المرونة التنظيمية قبل وقوع الكوارث. فعلى سبيل المثال، يمكن منح المنظمين سلطة خاصة مؤقتة لتقصير مهلة الموافقة على عمليات نشر الاتصالات في حالات الطوارئ.

‒ تكييف أنظمة التنبيه في حالات الطوارئ: يجب أن تنظر البلدان في طريقة تواصل الناس. فعلى سبيل المثال، لا تزال وسائل الإعلام الإذاعية (الراديو، والتلفزيون، إلخ.) ذات أهمية حاسمة في توزيع المعلومات على المواطنين في حالة وقوع كارثة، ومع ذلك، يجب الاعتراف في الوقت ذاته بأن الناس بدأوا يعتمدون بشكل متزايد على الأجهزة المتنقلة للحصول على المعلومات.

‒ ضمان التوصيلية: انعدام التوصيلية هو مشكلة تتعلق بالسلامة وبالتنمية أيضاً. ومن شأن ذلك أن يمنع الناس من تلقي تنبيهات وإنذارات حيوية، ويؤخر الاستجابة والتعافي أو يعوقهما. ويجب أن تأخذ السياسات المتعلقة بتنمية الاتصالات في الاعتبار الاحتياجات المحتملة للاتصالات في حالات الكوارث وقدرة الشبكات على الصمود.

– بناء القدرات: لدى مكتب تنمية الاتصالات فرص محتملة لتعزيز قدرة أقل البلدان نمواً والدول الجزرية الصغيرة النامية على إصدار وإبلاغ إنذارات مبكرة ومعلومات عن المخاطر تتسم بالفعالية، وتستند إلى الآثار، وتتعلق بمخاطر متعددة، وتراعي الاعتبارات الجنسانية. ومن المهم جداً بناء القدرات لتحسين عمليات التنبيه والكشف والاستجابة.

– وضع سياسات تمكينية: تمثل اتفاقية تامبيري أداة قيمة يمكن للبلدان استخدامها لتعزيز قدراتها في مجالي التأهب والتصدي للكوارث، ولكن البلدان الموقّعة على الاتفاقية لم تقم في أغلب الحالات بوضع السياسات والإجراءات التمكينية اللازمة لتنفيذها.

– استمرار تحسين إجراءات الطوارئ:تكتسي المشاريع التجريبية والتدريبات والتمرينات على إدارة الكوارث أهمية لاختبار الإجراءات وإدخال التعديلات اللازمة عليها بهدف تحسين مستوى التأهب لمواجهة أنواع محددة من حالات الطوارئ. وتدعو الحاجة أيضاً إلى مواصلة التنسيق مع أصحاب المصلحة.

– الإحاطة علماً بالتقدم التكنولوجي:تؤدي التكنولوجيات المتطورة دوراً هاماً في زيادة فعالية وكفاءة نشر الإنذارات المبكرة بأخطار متعددة. فعلى سبيل المثال، إضافةً إلى الكشف عن الكوارث الطبيعية كأمواج التسونامي والفيضانات يمكن للتكنولوجيات القائمة على إنترنت الأشياء أن تساعد في جمع بيانات يمكن معالجتها باستخدام تكنولوجيات تحليل البيانات الضخمة للكشف عن الكوارث أو التخفيف من حدتها أو نمذجة آثارها المحتملة. ويجب تقييم وتحديث الإجراءات والتكنولوجيا باستمرار لضمان إصدار تنبيهات وإنذارات مناسبة في الوقت المناسب تستجيب لها المجتمعات المحلية المتلقيّة لها.

‒ مجالات أخرى للنظر فيها:

• النهوض بالتدريب على الأنظمة الساتلية والأنظمة الأخرى التي يمكن استخدامها لأعراض الإنذار المبكر والاستجابة؛

• رسائل الإنذار الموجهة من الحكومة المحلية إلى المواطنين بشأن الميل الأخير، وقدرة الأنظمة الساتلية؛

• السعي باستمرار إلى الإلمام بمخاطر الكوارث، ويمكن توسيع ذلك من خلال القيام منهجياً بجمع البيانات وتقييم مخاطر الكوارث (الكشف عن الأخطار والعواقب المحتملة ورصدها وتحليلها والتنبؤ بها)، ومن ثم تمكين تبليغ إنذارات في الوقت المناسب ودقيقة وذات صلة وقابلة للتنفيذ إلى جانب معلومات عن مدى احتمال وقوع الكارثة وتأثيرها والإجراء الموصى به.

(باء) التدريبات على إدارة الكوارث والتكنولوجيات الناشئة في مجال إدارة الكوارث

‒ تكتسي الصور الساتلية أهمية فيما يتعلق بتقييم نطاق المناطق المتأثرة بالكوارث والأضرار اللاحقة بها.

‒ من المهم استخدام تمرينات من قبيل Triplex  [18] وضمان التنسيق الفعال بين الموقع المحلي ومركز التحكم.

‒ ينبغي أن تستند التدريبات والتمرينات إلى بيانات فعلية مستمدة من الكوارث السابقة لكي تساعد في إنشاء سيناريوهات كوارث أكثر واقعية وتجعل التدريب "أشبه بظروف الحياة".

‒ يمكن أن تكون وحدات موارد تكنولوجيا المعلومات والاتصالات القابلة للنقل والنشر (MDRU) أدوات مهمة لاستعادة شبكات تكنولوجيا المعلومات والاتصالات بسرعة.

‒ يجب وضع خطط بشأن قدرة الشبكات على الصمود، بما يشمل الاعتبارات المتعلقة بالسعة والطاقة، فحتى الشبكات غير المتضررة غالباً ما تصبح مزدحمة خلال الكوارث، وقد تنفد بطاريات الشبكات وتنقطع خطوط الإرسال، وقد يلحق ضرر مباشر بالبنية التحتية المادية.

‒ بما أن التكنولوجيا لا يمكنها أن تكون منعزلة، فإن من المهم جداً إيلاء الاهتمام للتخطيط والتنسيق والتدريبات والتمرينات، بهدف مراجعة السياسات والإجراءات باستمرار، ويجب اختبار المعدات على أساس منتظم.

‒ ينبغي أن تجري التدريبات اختبارات على توافر معدات الكوارث واستخدامها مثل الهواتف الساتلية لضمان وصول حد أدنى أساسي على الأقل من المستجيبين إليها واكتساب معارف بشأن كيفية استخدامها.

‒ قد تكون الحلول غير المعتمِدة كثيراً على التكنولوجيا ضرورية. وينبغي أن يكون المستجيبون مستعدين لحالات تعطل التكنولوجيات وتتوفر لديهم وسائل اتصالات إضافية في حال انقطاع الاتصال أو التيار الكهربائي.

‒ يكتسي التخطيط أهمية بالغة، ويجب تحديد أهداف التمرينات مسبقاً وإعلام المشاركين وأصحاب المصلحة بها.

‒ يكتسي سيناريو التمرينات أهمية وينبغي تكييفه مع الأخطار والظروف المحلية. ومع ذلك، ينبغي دائماً أن يكون الجميع على استعداد للتكيف والتأقلم، فالمرونة أمر بالغ الأهمية. ولإعداد المشاركين بشكل أفضل لسيناريوهات معقدة ومتغيرة، ينبغي تخطيط عدد من "عمليات الحقن" لتصعيد السيناريو واختبار قدرتهم على التفاعل مع الحالات المتزايدة التعقيد.

‒ الممارسة! الممارسة! الممارسة! والتدريب المتكرر وإعادة التدريب وعمليات محاكاة التصدي للكارثة، كلها أمور بالغة الأهمية لتحديد الثغرات وتنقيح السياسات والإجراءات.

‒ مباشرة بعد وقوع الكارثة، سيرتفع الطلب على الاتصالات بحيث يحاول الناس الاتصال بأقاربهم ويسعى المستجيبون إلى تنسيق الاستجابات على الشبكات المزدحمة والمتضررة. وسينخفض الطلب بمرور الوقت وطوال فترة التعافي.

‒ ينبغي أن تكون التدريبات متخصصة وفقاً للاحتياجات والتطبيقات ذات الأولوية، مثل المعلومات الطبية.

‒ ينبغي أن تراعي التدريبات وعمليات التخطيط الأشخاص ذوي الإعاقة وذوي الاحتياجات المحددة. وينبغي اتخاذ خطوات لضمان إمكانية نفاذ هؤلاء الأشخاص إلى المعلومات وتلبية احتياجاتهم المتعلقة بالاتصالات باستخدام جميع الوسائل المتاحة، بما في ذلك لغة الإشارة والعروض النصية.

‒ الإخلاء المبكر إجراء بالغ الأهمية لحماية حياة الأشخاص ذوي الإعاقة.

‒ ينبغي أن تشجع البلدان على استخدام راديو الهواة كوسيلة إضافية للاتصال في حال تعطل جميع البنى التحتية للشبكات الأخرى.

‒ تمثل جلسة الاستماع للمشاركين (أو ما بعد الإجراء)، حيث يتبادل الميسرون والمشاركون خبراتهم ويناقشون التحديات ويقدمون التعليقات، الجزء الأهم من التمرين. وينبغي أن تؤكد هذه الجلسة نقاط قوة برنامج التأهب وتفضي إلى وضع خطة عمل بشأن المجالات التي تحتاج إلى تحسين أو تكييف. وينبغي أن تعطي خطة العمل الأولوية لأنشطة المتابعة، بدءاً من "المكاسب السريعة" المحددة خلال التمرين.

‒ يمكن أن يكون التدريب النظري فعالاً جداً كنشاط أولي يساعد على تحديد الثغرات وتنقيح الخطط والإجراءات. وينبغي أن تليه بالترتيب تدريبات صورية، ثم تدريبات وظيفية، ثم تدريبات شاملة. وسيكون بناء الفريق خلال التدريبات مفيداً من حيث التنسيق في الحالات الواقعية.

‒ من المهم إدراج مجموعة متنوعة من المشاركين في تدريبات الاتصالات، مثل مسؤولي الاتصالات، ومشغلي ترددات الطوارئ، ومسؤولي السلامة العامة، والمسؤولين الإقليميين.

‒ ينبغي أيضاً أن تنظر التدريبات والتمرينات في سبل زيادة المرونة التنظيمية، مثل منح سلطات مؤقتة خاصة، لتمكين نقل البنية التحتية لتكنولوجيا المعلومات والاتصالات ونشرها بسرعة.

‒ ينبغي أن تتصل البلدان بمكتب تنمية الاتصالات للحصول على المساعدة في بناء القدرات وعلى المعلومات فيما يتعلق بتأهب الاتصالات في حالات الكوارث/الطوارئ.

‒ ينبغي التماس المساعدة الخارجية متى كان ذلك مطلوباً.

‒ يجب إعداد إجراءات تشغيل معيارية على الصعيد الوطني، وعلى مستوى الولايات والمقاطعات/المجتمعات المحلية، والنظر في كيفية زيادة قابلية التشغيل البيني ضمن الكيانات المعنية.

(جيم) تدريبات وتمارين على استخدام تكنولوجيا المعلومات والاتصالات في حالات الطوارئ الوطنية للدول الجزرية الصغيرة النامية وأقل البلدان نمواً

الخطوات/التدابير البارزة الموصى بها في عمليات التخطيط

‒ البدء بوضع مذكرة مفاهيمية تحدد الهدف والنتائج المتوخاة من التمرين والموارد المطلوبة والإطار الزمني. وتعرض المذكرة المفاهيمية التمرين على أصحاب المصلحة.

‒ تشكيل فريق للتخطيط يخطط جميع التفاصيل المتعلقة بسيناريو التمرين والجداول الزمنية والمشاركين والموارد المطلوبة وما إلى ذلك.

‒ كتابة السيناريو: تحتاج جميع التمرينات إلى سيناريو، بدءاً من التمرينات النظرية وصولاً إلى التدريبات الشاملة. والسيناريو هو النص الذي يحدد مسرح التمرين. ويجب التأكد من أن السيناريو يرتبط بأهداف التمرين!

‒ وضع خطة للتقييم تكون العنصر الرئيسي الذي سيحول التمرين إلى تجربة قيمة للتعلم.

‒ إجراء التمرين: التأكد من وجود جميع المعدات والموارد الأخرى، ثم الطلب من فريق التيسير تقديم إحاطة إعلامية للمشاركين وإدارة التمرين استناداً إلى السيناريو.

‒ الرصد: تقييم طريقة تفاعل المشاركين مع الأحداث الرئيسية. هل تحققت الأهداف؟ وما هي النتائج؟

‒ تسجيل جميع النقاط الرئيسية المتعلقة باتخاذ القرار والنتائج.

‒ عقد جلسة استماعللمشاركين.

‒ عقد جلسة بعد الإجراء/ مناقشة ردود الفعل الفورية.

‒ تحديد وتعيين إجراءات تصحيحية استناداً إلى الملاحظات المسجلة خلال التمرين.

‒ تحديث الخطط والسياسات والإجراءات والمعدات حسب الحاجة.

أفضل الممارسات في مجال تخطيط التمرينات

‒ ضمان توفير متسع من الوقت للتخطيط: إتاحة فسحة كافية من الوقت في عملية تخطيط التمرينات لإشعار المشاركين بالخطة. فعلى سبيل المثال، إذا شمل التمرين أو التدريب مشاركين من قطاع الاتصالات، فإن هؤلاء المشاركين سيحتاجون إلى الكثير من الإشعارات لحشد الموارد اللازمة للاستجابة.

‒ التخطيط الكامل لنطاق السيناريو وصياغة السيناريو، وبعد ذلك وضع إطار زمني مع تحديد الموارد التي ستحتاجها الأفرقة الداخلية والخارجية لتحقيق النتائج المتوخاة.

‒ إجراء التمرينات أو التدريبات على فترات زمنية منتظمة (سنوياً إن أمكن) لتعزيز النتائج.

‒ وضع إطار زمني للتمرين يتألف من جدولين زمنيين: التوقيت الزمني الحقيقي والمدة الزمنية للتمرين. فعلى سبيل المثال، إذا بدأ التمرين في الساعة 09:00 من يوم الإثنين بالتوقيت الحقيقي، ولكن في الساعة 03:00 من صباح يوم الأحد وفقاً للسيناريو، فإن التمرين ينبغي أن يبدأ في فترات زمنية مفهومة في كلا الجدولين (مثلاً، البداية: الساعة 03:00 = تساوي الساعة 09:00؛ التمرين 1: وقت البدء + ساعة واحدة = الساعة 10:00؛ التمرين الثاني: وقت البدء + ساعتين = الساعة 11:00).

‒ توسيع الإطار الزمني للتمرين لمناقشة الإجراءات التي كان ينبغي اتخاذها قبل الحدث المحاكى أو بعده. فعلى سبيل المثال، ينبغي لسيناريو إعصار في المحيط الأطلسي/إعصار مداري أن يغطي إجراءات التأهب والتخفيف والتعافي/الاستجابة من اليوم T ناقص 5 أيام حتى اليوم T زائد 3 أيام، لكي تشمل التحديد المسبق لمواقع الأصول، والوقود، والمؤن، وأفرقة الطوارئ الاحتياطية، وتأمين الشبكة، وتيسر الموظفين، وتدابير التحكم في الفيضانات مثل تجهيز أكياس الرمل. ودمج عمليات الحقن في الإطار الزمني للتمرين.

‒ النظر في توقيت السيناريو: هل سيكون في ذروة الموسم السياحي أم في وقت من السنة أقل ازدحاماً؟ أثناء موسم الأعياد أم في نهاية السنة أم في نهاية الشهر؟ سيسمح ذلك باختبار مدى توفر الموارد، خاصة إذا كانت الغاية من المحاكاة ضمان التأهب لحدث هام مقبل.

‒ إدراج إطار زمني تفصيلي لما ستحتاجه الأفرقة الداخلية والخارجية من وقت وموارد لتحقيق النتائج المتوخاة.

‒ إشراك الصناعة: تصميم السيناريو بحيث يكون من الواضح أن مشغلي الصناعة يمكنهم تقديم مدخلات بشأن ما إذا كان السيناريو واقعياً ويمكنهم رؤية الفوائد المحتملة لمشاركتهم. وتشمل هذه الفوائد التنسيق بين سائر القطاعات وتوثيق الصلات بالمنظِّم والهيئات والحكومية، وإمكانية اختبار الاتصالات الخاصة بهؤلاء المشغلين.

‒ اعتماد التمرين على الخطط القائمة (إن وجدت): فهم نطاق وحجم الخطط والسياسات الوطنية المطبقة على التدريب (لا ينصح بتصميم اختبار يتجاوز جميع العمليات التنظيمية القائمة). ماهي الأهداف المحددة فيما يخص وقت التعافي؟ وما هي المقاصد المتعلقة بالتعافي (إن وجدت)؟ ثم تصميم تقييم/اختبار لتقييم القدرة على تحقيق هذه المقاصد وجلب الموارد طوال الوقت. هل حُددت في الخطط عمليات استجابة/عمليات تجارية رئيسية مع أهداف ذات صلة فيما يخص وقت التعافي؟ وإذا لم يكن الأمر كذلك، نكون قد توصلنا إلى نتيجة يمكن للتمرين أن يسلط الضوء عليها.

‒ تنسيق الصياغة والمفردات: التأكد من أن كل الأطراف الفاعلة على علم بالمصطلحات المستخدمة. وإذا لزم الأمر، العمل مسبقاً على إصدار مسرد.

‒ العمل على أن يبقى السيناريو واقعياً باستمرار: تصميم سيناريو يعود بالفائدة على جميع الأطراف الفاعلة. وسيساعد ذلك أصحاب المصلحة على أداء أدوارهم على نحو أفضل. ومراعاة النطاق الجغرافي للتمرين أيضاً. هل سيتعين نقل الناس لمسافات طويلة؟ هل سيشمل السيناريو السكان عامةً (تنفيذ عمليات إخلاء، وإنشاء مرافق طبية للطوارئ، توفير خدمات البث الخلوي، وما إلى ذلك)؟

‒ ينبغي أن تكون السيناريوهات وعمليات الحقن دينامية لتدفع الحكومات والأفراد إلى التعامل مع أحداث متسلسلة. ونظراً إلى أن الكوارث الطبيعية لا تتبع خطة محددة مسبقاً، فإن من بالغ الأهمية الاستعداد للعديد من السيناريوهات.

‒ الحصول على مشاركة أصحاب المصلحة: وضع قائمة بالأطراف الفاعلة الرئيسية التي يجب أن تشارك وأخرى بالأطراف الفاعلة التي مشاركتها اختيارية. إعطاء الأولوية للمشاركين. وإذا قمت بإشراك أصحاب مصلحة خارج النطاق المباشر لسيطرتك وتنظيمك، فتأكد من حصولك على إذنهم لإدراج موظفيهم الذين قد يتقيدون بالمشاركة لفترة زمنية طويلة. وإذا كنت تعتزم إشراك الموظفين لعدة أيام، فاحرص على إبلاغ رؤسائهم وقياداتهم.

‒ تأثيرات الموارد: إدراك تأثيرات الموارد إذا كانت المخرجات تتطلب الكثير من العمل (من قبيل جمع البيانات).

‒ معرفة متى يتم وقف التمرين: الاستعداد لوقف التمرين إذا كانت الظروف تجعله غير عملي، أو كانت النتائج غير مفيدة أو غير واقعية. وستفيد هذه التجربة في تحسين التمرين التالي.

‒ إضافة "عامل الضغط": النظر في إزالة منصات التكنولوجيا من التمرين والعودة إلى العمليات اليدوية مع إمكانيات محدودة للاتصالات. ومن شأن ذلك أن "يضغط" العمليات ويختبر قدرة الأفرقة على التخطيط المسبق وإلمامها بخططها وقدرتها على التصرف بدون توجيه.

‒ استخدام عمليات وأنظمة من العالم الحقيقي: تجنب إنشاء أفرقة وعناوين للبريد الإلكتروني ومسارات للاتصالات تكون "حصرية للتمرين" ولا تسمح فعلياً بالتحقق من فعالية الأنظمة المستخدمة أثناء حدث حقيقي.

إجراء التدريبات والتمرينات

‒ تيسير إجراء تمرين قائم على السيناريو: ينبغي أن يوزع الميسر على المشاركين مسبقاً خطة الطوارئ الخاصة بالمنظمة، إن وجدت. وقد يتصل الميسر أيضاً بمديري الطوارئ على الصعيدين المحلي والوطني والمستجيبين على صعيد المجتمع المحلي ليطلب منهم مسبقاً تقديم مدخلات من قبيل المدخلات المتعلقة بالمشاكل الحالية لإدارة الطوارئ المحلية التي يمكن أن تؤثر على خطة المنظمة [19] . ويتمثل دور الميسر في وضع إطار يشجع الحوار، وتوجيه المناقشات لتحقيق أهداف التمرين وإثراء خطط الطوارئ الخاصة بالمنظمة وتحفيز العمل الجماعي وتثقيف المشاركين. ويمكن أن تشمل ذلك ما يلي:

• تقديم نظرة عامة للمشاركين عن التمرين، بما في ذلك النطاق والسيناريو والإطار الزمني وأدوار المشاركين والخطوات التالية؛

• إتاحة الفرصة للمشاركين لتقديم أنفسهم؛

• إتاحة الفرصة للمشاركين للعمل معاً كفريق (أو تقسيمهم إلى أفرقة متعددة)؛

• عرض الحادث على المشاركين كما لو كان حقيقياً؛

• توجيه الفريق من خلال وحدات نمطية تفاعلية استناداً إلى مراحل الكوارث – التأهب والاستجابة والتعافي والتخفيف – ومناقشة الإجراءات المحددة الواجب اتخاذها في كل مرحلة؛

• تشجيع إجراء مناقشة معمقة للإجراءات المناسبة المتعلقة بالتأهب والتخفيف والاستجابة، لتحسين القدرة على الاتصال عند وقوع كوارث في المستقبل؛

• إضافة "عمليات حقن" في الأوقات الحرجة؛

• تيسير إجراء "جلسة استماع" أو مناقشة "ردود الفعل الفورية"، يلخص فيها المشاركون ملاحظاتهم واستنتاجاتهم، لتساعد في أفضل الحالات في إثراء خطط الطوارئ الوطنية وتعديلها؛

• المشاركة في عملية شاملة بعد الإجراء.

أفضل الممارسات في مجال إجراء التمرينات

‒ تسجيل الأحداث: تعيين كاتب للتقارير لتسجيل الإطار الزمني والقرارات الرئيسية.

‒ توفير إطار زمني والبدء بشرح طريقة تنفيذ التمرين. وإدراج وتيرة استدعاء المشاركين. ووضع إطار زمني للاستدعاءات التي ستحدث ووقت حدوثها. وتحديد وقت الانتهاء.

‒ العمل على أن يبقى جدول الأعمال حافلاً سواء حضورياً أو في إطار نداء مؤتمري. محاولة التقليل من المهام الإدارية إلى الحد الأدنى.

‒ عمليات الحقنينبغي تصميمها بحيث تحفز إجراءات وأنشطة ومحادثات الأفرقة والوكالات والأفراد المشاركين في التمرين بشكل مباشر أو غير مباشر. وينبغي أيضاً استكشاف الخطط القائمة. فعلى سبيل المثال، إذا كان السيناريو يشمل اختبار الاستجابة الطارئة لإعصار في مرفق ما، فقد تتمثل عملية الحقن الأولى في بث نشرة جوية عبر وسائل الإعلام عن وجود منخفض استوائي بدأ يتحول إلى إعصار. ويمكن أن تتمثل عملية الحقن التالية في إعداد تقرير متابعة لتتبع اتجاه الإعصار نحو المنطقة.

‒ ينبغي أن تربط عمليات الحقن الحدثَ المحاكى بالإجراءات المراد من السكان اتخاذها. فعمليات الحقن هذه توفر تماسكاً للتمرين وتقدم من خلال مراقبين لتوجيه السيناريو. وعادةً ما تتم بغض النظر عن إجراءات المشاركين. فعلى سبيل المثال، يمكن لحالة طوارئ محاكاة على الطريق أن تعوق القدرة على الإخلاء عبر طريق رئيسي. ويتمثل سبب عملية الحقن هذه في أن مراقب التمرين سيحيط الأطراف الفاعلة علماً في وقت محدد سلفاً بوقوع هذا الحدث المحاكى بغض النظر عن إجراءاتها. وتشمل الأمثلة الأخرى تعطل المولدات، أو نقص الوقود (عدم توفر الوقود خلال الساعات الثلاث التالية)، أو حدوث تسربات كيميائية يستلزم تنظيفها تدخل الأفرقة المعنية بالمواد الخطرة، أو وقوع اضطرابات مدنية بالقرب من مستشفى. وعند تخطيط عملية الحقن، ينبغي الربط بين أثرها المحاكى والإجراءات التي ينبغي للسكان اتخاذها.

‒ إعداد عمليات حقن تتحدى هيكل الاستجابة وتختبر مرونة خطط الاستجابة وتدفع إلى مناقشة الأولويات:تشمل الأمثلة حالات التأثير على الاتصالات (مثلاً، دمار أبراج الاتصالات الخلوية أو تضررها في مناطق رئيسية، وتعطل الإنترنت أو خطوط الهاتف الثابت، وتضرر الكبلات البحرية، وعدم التمكن من استعادة الخدمات السحابية) ومشاكل البنية التحتية التي تؤثر على الاستجابة (مثلا، غلق المطارات وتعرض الطرق للضرر).

‒ تحديد المخرجات الواجب تقديمها وموعد التقديم ومستوى التفاصيل (كلي أو جزئي).

‒ وضع قواعد أساسية للاتصالات أثناء التمرين: استخدام عبارة "هذا مجرد تمرين" في البداية وتحديد الوقت الذي انتهت فيه جميع الاتصالات المتعلقة بالتمرين.

‒ تحديد شروط تقديم التقارير أثناء الحدث: ما الذي يجري رصده ومن قِبل من؟ وما هي المعلومات التي يمكن الحصول عليها؟ وما هي حالة التقارير الصادرة؟ وما الذي يتعين على المشغلين تقديم تقارير بشأنه وكيف يمكنهم القيام بذلك؟

‒ تحديد خطوط الإبلاغ: ما هي التقارير وإلى من تقدم وبأية وتيرة؟ وما مدى استيعاب خطوط الاتصال هذه؟

(دال) الدروس المستفادة

‒ يكتسي النفاذ إلى بنية تحتية متينة وآمنة وقادرة على الصمود لتكنولوجيا المعلومات والاتصالات في جميع أنحاء العالم أهمية بالغة عند انتشار جائحة أو وقوع أي نوع من الكوارث.

‒ تيسِّر تكنولوجيا المعلومات والاتصالات الخدمات الأساسية في حالات الطوارئ العالمية. ومع ذلك، تحتاج تكنولوجيا المعلومات والاتصالات، من أجل أداء وظائفها، إلى بيئة سياساتية تمكينية لدعم تطوير شبكات قادرة على الصمود واستعادة خدمات تكنولوجيا المعلومات والاتصالات ونشرها بسرعة عند وقوع كارثة. فعلى سبيل المثال، يمكن وضع أحكام تسمح بمنح سلطة مؤقتة لاستخدام إضافي للطيف أو تخصيص هوامش شحن مجانية من أجل نداءات الطوارئ.

‒ يجب أن تكون شبكات الاتصالات والبنية التحتية الرقمية في العالم أكثر استعداداً للكوارث بجميع أنواعها. والعمل التعاوني مطلوب للمساعدة في ضمان تنفيذ التدريبات وإعداد تدابير الاستجابة السريعة، لأن الكوارث – بما فيها الجوائح – يمكن أن تحدث في أي وقت وفي أي مكان، بإنذار ضعيف أو بدون إنذار.

‒ يمكن الحد من أي عواقب سلبية للكوارث إذا تم قبل وقوعها بوقت طويل توفير شبكات متينة وقادرة على الصمود وأدوات وممارسات لإدارة الكوارث.

2.7 الاستنتاجات

طوال فترة الدراسة، بحثت لجنة الدراسات 2 لقطاع تنمية الاتصالات مجموعة واسعة من الأنشطة المتعلقة باستخدام الاتصالات/تكنولوجيا المعلومات والاتصالات أثناء الكوارث وفي حالات الطوارئ في البلدان المتقدمة والبلدان النامية على حد سواء (المسألة 5/2). ومن المشجع ملاحظة أن أعدداً متزايدة من البلدان والمنظمات بدأت تتخذ خطوات لتطوير أنظمة الإنذار المبكر، ونشر أحدث التكنولوجيات، وزيادة قدرة شبكات الاتصالات/تكنولوجيا المعلومات والاتصالات على الصمود أمام مخاطر الكوارث. وستساعد الدروس المستفادة والمبادئ التوجيهية التي أُعدت خلال فترة الدراسة على تحسين عمليات التأهب فيما يتعلق بالإنذار المبكر والتدريبات والتمرينات ووضع السياسات في الوقت المناسب وعلى النحو الفعال. ومع ذلك، فقد تبين من المناقشات أن البلدان النامية تحتاج إلى دعم إضافي لتنفيذ الاتصالات في حالات الكوارث، وبالتالي فإن التركيز ينبغي أن يتحول إلى استخدام الاتصالات/تكنولوجيا المعلومات والاتصالات في عمليات التصدي للكوارث والتعافي منها وتنفيذ خطط الاتصالات في حالات الكوارث. ومع ذلك، ينبغي أن تستمر البلدان في تقاسم الخبرات والمساهمات من أجل استخدام الاتصالات/تكنولوجيا المعلومات والاتصالات في جميع مجالات إدارة الكوارث، خاصة فيما يتعلق بالتصدي لجائحة كوفيد-19. ويمكن للبلدان النامية أيضاً أن تكرس مزيداً من الوقت لتبادل الخبرات، بوسائل منها ورش العمل التفاعلية، بهدف تحديد التحديات المشتركة وتسليط الضوء على الممارسات الناجحة ودعم استمرار تطوير وتنفيذ الأطر والتكنولوجيات والخطط المتعلقة بالاتصالات في حالات الطوارئ.

[1] رابطة مشغلي السواتل في أوروبا والشرق الأوسط وإفريقيا (ESOA). الخدمات. اتصالات الطوارئ.

[2] الاتحاد الدولي للاتصالات. تقارير مواضيعية. المبادئ التوجيهية للاتحاد بشأن الخطط الوطنية للاتصالات في حالات الطوارئ . الاتحاد الدولي للاتصالات، جنيف، 2020.

[3] قطاع تنمية الاتصالات بالاتحاد وتكتل اتصالات الطوارئ التابع للأمم المتحدة. المرأة وتكنولوجيا المعلومات والاتصالات، والاتصالات في حالات الطوارئ: تقرير عن الفرص والقيود. الاتحاد الدولي للاتصالات، جنيف، 2020.

[4] الاتحاد الدولي للاتصالات. اللجنة الاستشارية المعنية بنموذج التنمية المستدامة الذكية. تقرير عن مبادرة نموذج التنمية المستدامة الذكية (SSDM)، 2018. أدوات للاستجابة السريعة لحالات الطوارئ في مجال تكنولوجيا المعلومات والاتصالات والتنمية المستدامة . الاتحاد الدولي للاتصالات، جنيف، 2018.

[5] الاتحاد الدولي للاتصالات، ومركز الإنترنت والمجتمع في الهند (CIS) والمبادرة العالمية لتكنولوجيا المعلومات والاتصالات الشاملة للجميع (G3ict). تيسير نفاذ الأشخاص ذوي الإعاقة إلى تكنولوجيا المعلومات والاتصالات: تناول مسألة التأهب ، الاتحاد الدولي للاتصالات، 2016.

[6] الاستراتيجية الدولية للحد من الكوارث. إطار عمل هيوغو للفترة 2015-2005 : بناء قدرة الأمم والمجتمعات على مواجهة الكوارث . مقتطف من التقرير النهائي للمؤتمر العالمي المعني بالحد من الكوارث (A/CONF.206/6)، الجزء الثالث - ألف، الفقرة 13 (ج).

[7] المرجع نفسه، الجزء 1.B.III، الفقرة 16.

[8] الاتحاد الدولي للاتصالات، المرجع السابق، (الملاحظة 2).

[9] المرجع نفسه.

[10] إطار عمل هيوغو للفترة 2015-2005، المرجع السابق، (الملاحظة 6)، الجزء 2.B.III.

[11] الوثيقة SG2RGQ/152 + الملحق للجنة الدراسات 2 لقطاع تنمية الاتصالات المقدمة من الولايات المتحدة.

[12] انظر قاعدة بيانات OSCAR لدى المنظمة العالمية للأرصاد الجوية (WMO) .

[13] الوثيقة SG2RGQ/188 (Rev.1) للجنة الدراسات 2 لقطاع تنمية الاتصالات المقدمة من اليابان.

[14] الوثيقة 2/401 للجنة الدراسات 2 لقطاع تنمية الاتصالات المقدمة من المعهد الوطني لتكنولوجيا المعلومات والاتصالات (NICT) (اليابان).

[15] انظر الموقع الإلكتروني للمنظمة العالمية للأرصاد الجوية. برنامج الحد من مخاطر الكوارث. نظم الإنذار المبكر بالأخطار المتعددة (MHEWS).

[16] موقع Scroll.in. في الوقت الذي تواجه فيه كيرالا الفيضان، تساعد وسائل التواصل الاجتماعي في التواصل بين الأقارب القلقين، وتنسيق جهود الإغاثة . 17 أغسطس 2018.

[17] الوثيقة 2/TD/32 للجنة الدراسات 2 لقطاع تنمية الاتصالات المقدمة من المقررين المشاركين المعنيين بالمسألة 5/2.

[18] Triplex هو تدريب محاكاة منتظم وشامل تديره الشراكة الإنسانية الدولية ويمكّن مجموعة من الكيانات الإنسانية من التمرن على آليات الاستجابة الخاصة بها في إطار سيناريو مفاجئ للكوارث الطبيعية.

[19] انظر أيضاً التمرن على خطط استمرارية الأعمال في حالات الكوارث الطبيعية: دليل سريع لمشغلي الشبكات المتنقلة . (رابطة النظام العالمي للاتصالات المتنقلة (GSMA)، 2017).

Annexes

Annex 1: Detailed use cases

A1.1 Enabling policy and regulatory environment

A1.1.1 Policy frameworks on ICT and disaster management (India) [1]

(1) India's policy framework – Role of ICTs in disaster situations

The National Telecom Policy 2012 emphasizes the importance of disaster management and contains various provisions relating thereto, including with regard to:

– the creation of robust and resilient telecommunication networks to address the need for proactive support to mitigate natural and man-made disasters;

– sectoral standard operating procedures to promote effective and early mitigation during disasters and emergencies;

– the creation of an appropriate regulatory framework for the provision of reliable means of public communication by telecommunication service providers during disasters;

– encouraging use of ICTs to predict, monitor and issue early warnings of disasters, and to spread information;

– facilitating an institutional framework to establish a nationwide unified emergency response mechanism by providing a nationwide single access number for emergency services.

(2) India's standard operating procedures for the use of telecommunication services in disasters

The Department of Telecommunications, which is part of India's Ministry of Communications, prepared standard operating procedures for disaster-response and emergency communications in 2015. A crisis management plan for disaster communications was also released in 2015, and the standard operating procedures were last updated in March 2017. The update covers detailed procedures for communication services during all kinds of disasters, including the following:

• the organization of telecom services at all levels (central, state and district) for implementing and monitoring disaster-management plans;

• the constitution of committees at national, state and district level that meet once every six months to review disaster-management plans and activities;

• robust and preventive measures for telecommunication systems;

• the obligation for telecommunication service providers to make provision for physical infrastructure safety and redundancy in traffic management;

• the obligation for telecommunication service providers to identify the vulnerabilities of their respective telecommunication infrastructure and prepare emergency plans accordingly, including back-up components (e.g. engine alternator, batteries);

• an overload protection mechanism for traffic overload and congestion management;

• the provision of control room management/activities during and after the disaster;

• periodic training to promote ongoing awareness and drills to check preparedness.

Details are available at the Department of Telecommunications website .

(3) Telecom Regulatory Authority of India initiatives

The recommendations of the Telecom Regulatory Authority of India (TRAI) regarding a single emergency number in India provide a framework for implementation of an integrated emergency communication and response system. The recommendations were accepted by the Government of India and the number "112" was allocated to this service. The Department of Telecommunications subsequently issued the necessary instructions to telecommunication service providers for implementation. In 2013, TRAI also issued recommendations on priority call routing for persons involved in rescue and relief operations, which were also largely accepted. Telecommunication service providers were asked to provide Intra Circle Roaming for their subscribers so that, should mobile services be interrupted because of infrastructure failure during a disaster, subscribers can obtain roaming service for 15 days on the network of another telecommunication service provider whose network is in working condition. TRAI is currently consulting on next-generation PPDR communication networks. Detailed information is available on its website .

(4) Early-warning systems

India has a very robust early-warning system, comprising the following primary nodal agencies:

• the India Meteorological Department (cyclones, floods, drought, earthquakes);

• the Central Water Commission of the Ministry of Water Resources (floods);

• the Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO) National Remote Sensing Centre , which provides all manner of space navigation services;

• the Geological Survey of India (landslides);

• the Ministry of Earth Sciences, via the Indian Tsunami Early-Warning Centre at the Indian National Centre for Ocean Information Services , Hyderabad (tsunamis);

• the Snow and Avalanche Study Establishment (avalanches).

Indian early-warning agencies send important information derived from satellite-based sensing data to neighbouring countries and to several similar agencies in the Indian Ocean and Asia Pacific region. The Indian early-warning system is also part of the WMO World Weather Watch Global Telecommunication System.

The ISRO National Remote Sensing Centre, together with other organizations such as the Geological Survey of India, the Bureau of Indian Standards and OPCW, has produced maps dividing India into zones on the basis of hazard vulnerability using sensing data. These maps are very useful for pre-disaster planning, prevention and mitigation activities. Bhuvan is the ISRO geoplatform providing an extensive range of services based on Geological Survey maps.

(5) Disaster management: an integrated approach using ICT applications to enable efficacious disaster prediction

In the wake of the 2004 tsunami, the Government of India took steps to build robust early-warning systems: the Ministry of Earth Sciences established the National Tsunami Early-Warning System at the Indian National Centre for Ocean Information Services in Hyderabad, Andhra Pradesh; and the Ministry's Meteorological Department developed ICT-based systems that issue accurate warnings and generate real-time weather reports for all major disaster-management agencies.

The benefits of early warnings and preparedness became apparent when Cyclone Phailin, the strongest storm to hit India in more than a decade, swept across the Bay of Bengal to the eastern coast states of Andhra Pradesh and Odisha on Saturday, 12 October 2013, making landfall with winds over 200 km/h and bringing heavy rainfall. The red message, the highest alert message from the Indian Meteorology Department in New Delhi, was concise, accurate and to the point. It also indicated where and what type of damages were expected to shelter and infrastructure.

The Orissa State Disaster Management Authority team and the National Disaster Management Authority managed the largest-ever evacuation exercise in the state. Nearly 500 000 people were evacuated in time and moved to higher ground and safer cyclone shelters. State, federal and local administration officials, international and national NGOs, and community leaders joined hands in a well-planned large-scale relief operation. Control rooms were set up in ten districts, mobile phone numbers were updated and verified, leaves were cancelled to ensure that all staff members were on stand-by, and food and relief stocks were kept in readiness. The National Disaster Management Authority facilitated local efforts in Odisha, mobilizing rescue teams and sending equipment to possible hot spots. It deployed nearly 2 000 personnel of the National Disaster Response Force in Andhra Pradesh, Odisha and West Bengal. The teams were equipped with satellite phones and wireless sets to maintain smooth communications.

Thanks to the efficient early-warning system and the rapid evacuation measures deployed, a very low death toll was reported: only 21 people died (12 million lived in the storm's path). By contrast, a 1999 cyclone in the same area had a much more devastating impact, killing 10 000 people. Similarly, the 2004 tsunami took the lives of about 10 000 people in coastal states of India.

The early warning issued by the India Meteorological Department was also effective thanks to the state government disaster preparedness and mitigation activities for communities at risk carried out previously: shelters and food had been made available, a volunteer system established, drills regularly conducted and standard operating procedures drawn up for disaster management at state and village level.

(6) The Fisher Friend Mobile Application

The Indian National Centre for Ocean Information Services has collaborated with a very renowned research institution, the M.S. Swaminathan Research Foundation, to develop the Fisher Friend Network, which ensures safety at sea and improves the livelihoods of fishermen. The Fisher Friend Mobile Application is a unique, single-window solution for the holistic shore-to-shore needs of the fishing community, providing vulnerable fishermen immediate access to critical, near real-time knowledge and information services on weather, potential fishing zones, ocean state forecasts and market-related information. Fishermen now receive regular ocean weather forecasts, early warnings about adverse weather conditions and advisories on potential fishing zones. The application is an efficient and effective decision-making tool enabling the fisher community to make informed decisions about their personal safety and the safety of their boats, and to make smart choices about fishing and marketing their catches.

The application was developed on an android platform in partnership with Wireless Reach Qualcomm and Tata Consultancy Services. It is currently available in Tamil, Telugu and English. Fishermen have been trained to recognize warning signs to ensure their own safety and that of their communities.

A1.1.2 The importance of ICTs in disaster management (India) [2]

(1) Disaster-management governance and law

Major disasters, such as the earthquakes in Uttarkashi (1991), Latur (1993) and Chamoli (1999), the Assam floods (1998) and the Orissa super cyclone (1999), led to serious brainstorming on the state of disaster management in India and on the actions required to improve the situation. A key step in that direction was the establishment by India, which was a party to the 1994 Yokohama Strategy for a Safer World, of the High-Power Committee under the chairmanship of Mr J.C. Pant, former secretary of the Indian Government. The Committee produced a detailed report and a set of fundamental and practical recommendations. The Gujarat Bhuj earthquake in 2001 triggered the proposed Disaster Management Bill, which was enacted after the 2004 Indian Ocean tsunami as the Disaster Management Act 2005. The Act enshrines the paradigm shift to "prevention-mitigation based holistic disaster management". Interestingly, in 2005 India also participated in the Kobe World Conference on Disaster Reduction, which adopted the Hyogo Framework for Action 2005–2015. Although India's pioneering legislation on systemic disaster planning and preparedness, the Emergency Planning, Preparedness and Response Rules 1996, was adopted as part of the Environmental Protection Act 1996, the mechanism for holistic planning for disaster management and a tiered approach involving national, state, district and local authorities was introduced by the Disaster Management Act 2005.

The Disaster Management Act 2005 clearly spells out the institutional structures and corresponding functional responsibilities needed to bring about the paradigm shift, leading to the establishment of the National Disaster Management Authority, the National Institute of Disaster Management (the National Authority's capacity-building arm) and the National Disaster Response Force. Similar responsibilities at state and local level resulted in the establishment of the respective institutions at state and district level. This institutional framework ensures that, in post-disaster situations, the communities concerned have assured sustainable livelihoods and reduced vulnerability to future disasters. India is also a party to all international disaster risk reduction strategies and a signatory of the Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction 2015–2030, the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development and the 2015 Paris Climate Agreement.

The National Disaster Management Authority has drawn up the National Policy on Disaster Management, which defines India's disaster-management vision. The policy aims to promote a culture of prevention, preparedness and resilience at all levels through knowledge, innovation and education. It encourages mitigation measures based on technology, traditional wisdom and environmental sustainability, and promotes mainstreaming of disaster management into the development planning process. The policy envisions the use of science and technology in all aspects of disaster management in India and is available on the website of the National Disaster Management Authority.

(2) National telecom policy and emergency telecommunication initiatives

India's National Telecom Policy 2012 emphasizes the importance of disaster management and contains various provisions relating thereto, including with regard to:

• the creation of robust and resilient telecommunication networks to address the need for proactive support to mitigate natural and man-made disasters;

• sectoral standard operating procedures to promote effective and early mitigation during disasters and emergencies;

• the creation of an appropriate regulatory framework for the provision of reliable means of public communication by telecommunication service providers during disasters;

• encouraging use of ICTs to predict, monitor and issue early warnings of disasters, and to spread information;

• facilitating an institutional framework to establish a nationwide unified emergency response mechanism by providing a single access number for emergency services valid throughout the country.

Pursuant to the National Telecom Policy 2012, the Department of Telecommunications, which is part of India's Ministry of Communications, prepared standard operating procedures for disaster response and emergency communications in 2015. A crisis management plan for disaster communications was also released in 2015, and the standard operating procedures were last updated in March 2017. The update covers detailed procedures for communication services during all kinds of disasters.

Going further, the Department of Telecommunications has now created an organizational structure at each Telecom Licensed Service Area (which normally corresponds to India's states), a functional role specific to disaster management empowered to implement the standard operating procedures in all Telecom Licensed Service Areas and drive emergency telecommunications at federal and state government level.

The Telecommunication Engineering Centre, the Department of Telecommunications' telecom research and standardization arm, produced a paper on disaster communications in 2008. The paper's recommendations were adopted as the department's standard operating procedures. The Centre has recently released a testing procedure for enhanced Multi-Level Precedence and Pre-Emption priority services for emergency communications.

The Telecom Regulatory Authority of India has already issued recommendations on priority call routing, the single emergency number and next-generation PPDR communication networks.

(3) ICT-based forecasting and warning networks

In line with the ongoing paradigm shift in disaster management, and with the priorities and action points of the Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction 2015–2030, the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development and the 2015 Paris Climate Agreement, disaster risk reduction, climate change adaptation and sustainable development are now interrelated. In India, the emphasis is now on disaster risk reduction through prevention, mitigation and preparedness. India has built up a very strong early-warning system. The country's meteorological service, the India Meteorological Department (IMD), was established in 1875. It is the principal government agency in all matters relating to meteorology, seismology and allied subjects. The IMD offers observation, data collection, monitoring and forecasting services across various sectors: monsoons, hydrology, agriculture, health, aviation, transport, shipping, cyclones, climatology, mountaineering, disaster management, etc. It offers many web-based forecast services. For example, weather forecasts, meteorological information, nowcasts and warnings are provided from IMD headquarters in New Delhi and various IMD offices. The IMD's meteorological telecommunications consist of an integrated network of point-to-point and point-to-multipoint links with meteorological centres in the country and worldwide for receiving data and relaying it selectively. The IMD also has a VSAT-based network. It has a two-tier organization:

• the Meteorological Telecommunication Network, which is part of the WMO World Weather Watch Global Telecommunication System;

• the National Meteorological Telecommunication Network.

The Global Telecommunication System, the main part of the WMO National Meteorological Telecommunication Centre, in Mausam Bhavan, New Delhi, acts as a WMO regional telecommunication hub.

The IMD is mandated:

– to take meteorological observations and to provide current and forecast meteorological information for optimum operation of weather-sensitive activities such as agriculture, irrigation, shipping, aviation and offshore oil exploration;

– to warn against severe weather phenomena such as tropical cyclones, northwesters, dust storms, heavy rains and snow, and cold and heat waves, which cause destruction of life and property;

– to provide the meteorological statistics required for agriculture, water resource management, industries, oil exploration and other nation-building activities;

– to conduct and promote research in meteorology and allied disciplines;

– to detect and locate earthquakes and to evaluate seismicity in different parts of the country for development projects.

Apart from the IMD, other Indian agencies monitor and provide early warnings of disasters:

• the Central Water Commission of the Ministry of Water Resources (floods);

• the ISRO National Remote Sensing Centre , which provides all manner of space navigation services;

• the Geological Survey of India (landslides);

• the Ministry of Earth Sciences, via the Indian Tsunami Early-Warning Centre at the Indian National Centre for Ocean Information Services , Hyderabad (tsunamis);

• the Snow and Avalanche Study Establishment (avalanches).

Indian early-warning agencies send important information derived from satellite-based sensing data to neighbouring countries and to several similar agencies in the Indian Ocean and Asia Pacific region. The Indian early-warning system is also part of the WMO World Weather Watch Global Telecommunication System.

(4) Mapping and hazard zones

The ISRO National Remote Sensing Centre, together with other organizations such as the Geological Survey of India, the Bureau of Indian Standards and OPCW, has produced maps dividing India into zones on the basis of hazard vulnerability. The maps are specific to an area's hazard profile. The maps are very useful for pre-disaster planning, prevention and mitigation, and mainstreaming of disaster risk reduction and development planning activities. They are also used to implement building by-laws.

(5) Bhuvan data discovery and metadata portal

Bhuvan is the ISRO geoplatform providing an extensive range of services based on Geological Survey maps. The portal, which was developed by the ISRO National Remote Sensing Centre, is meant to:

• improve access to and integrated use of spatial data and information;

• support decision-making;

• promote multidisciplinary approaches to sustainable development;

• enhance understanding of the benefits of geographic information.

It is being extensively used for disaster risk reduction. It also helps pinpoint the location of events. For example, forest fires can be quickly located and remedial action taken thanks to this geo-portal. Details of the various disaster services on offer are available here .

A1.1.3 Emergency telecommunications under Haiti's Sectoral Working Group (Haiti) [3]

(1) Disaster management in Haiti

In Haiti, disaster management is entrusted to the Civil Defence Directorate ( Direction de la Protection Civile, or DPC), which is under the authority of the Ministry of the Interior and Local Government Authorities. The DPC receives support for natural disaster management from many other State bodies and private and international institutions.

In addition to planning and coordinating relief activities, the DPC also manages a UHF telecommunication network to facilitate communication between the different bodies involved in the disaster-management process. For field telecommunications, the DPC relies on the support of the National Telecommunication Council (CONATEL) to mobilize all telecommunication/Internet operators and broadcasters. CONATEL's responsibilities in terms of emergency telecommunications are as follows:

• coordinate with telecommunication operators with a view to ensuring availability of telecommunication networks for relief operations;

• issue alerts via radio and television stations;

• activate and distribute satellite telephones to government officials for the coordination of relief operations;

• coordinate the deployment of telecommunication systems with ITU.

(2) Regulator's emergency telecommunication plan of action

The regulator's emergency telecommunication plan of action involves the following:

• coordination with the DPC, mobile operators, Internet access providers, and radio and television stations for emergency alerts to the public;

• ensuring the resilience of mobile operator, Internet access provider and radio and television station networks;

• coordination of assistance from ITU and other international organizations for emergency telecommunications;

• advocacy for the adoption and implementation of a national plan for emergency telecommunications;

• introduction of a mechanism for the efficient and optimal use of telecommunication resources during emergencies.

(3) Role of telecommunication/Internet operators and broadcasters

Telecommunication operators and Internet access providers have the following responsibilities:

• provide telecommunication services in disaster-affected areas;

• issue emergency alerts at the DPC's request;

• offer calls free of charge to persons living in disaster-affected areas.

Radio and television stations are supposed to broadcast alerts to disaster-affected populations.

(4) Support from international organizations

ITU provides appropriate support to Haiti during emergencies. Its interventions take two forms:

– deployment of emergency telecommunication equipment to facilitate communication among relief teams;

– distribution of satellite telephones to government officials for the coordination of relief activities.

Several other international NGOs, either established in Haiti or arriving specifically for emergencies, deploy their telecommunication equipment to support DPC activities.

(5) Projects under way

There are currently two emergency telecommunication projects under way.

Haiti does not yet have an integrated emergency telecommunication system. It has therefore been decided to establish a sectoral committee on emergency telecommunications ( Comité sectoriel sur les télécommunications d'urgence, or COSTU), charged with coordinating sectoral responses, in accordance with the national disaster and risk management plan. COSTU was set up with a view to using telecommunications and ICTs to enhance the coordination of disaster prevention, preparedness and response.

COSTU reflects an ongoing commitment bringing together the Ministry of Public Works, Transport and Communications, through the participation of CONATEL, and the Ministry of the Interior and Local Government Authorities, through the participation of the DPC. It demonstrates the Government's determination to strengthen disaster prevention, preparedness and response measures through joint planning and to take advantage of the essential role of telecommunications in this regard.

COSTU's terms of reference include the following elements:

– mission and functions

– composition

– operating mechanisms

– task descriptions

– financing arrangements

– expected outcomes

– follow-up and assessment mechanisms.

WFP and the GSMA contributed to work leading to the establishment of the sectoral working group on emergency telecommunications.

The second project concerns the introduction of an early-warning system to issue public alerts in the event of a disaster. The system is designed to operate on mobile telephone operator networks. Arrangements are being made for it to be installed on the networks of the country's two mobile operators. The system, which will be provided by Microimage, receives assistance from the GSMA and is financed by the World Bank.

A1.1.4 Emergency Telecommunications Preparedness Checklist (WFP) [4]

As disasters continue to increase in frequency and scope across the world, and ITU-D Question 5/2 considers the critical role of how communication policy-makers can help enable emergency telecommunications in disaster preparedness, mitigation, response and relief, the WFP-led Emergency Telecommunications Cluster and ITU-D have jointly developed the Emergency Telecommunications Preparedness Checklist. The checklist examines key thematic areas that could be considered for inclusion in an NETP and provides a simple scoring approach to assess the state of progress on each decision point or action over time. It primarily supports the establishment and refinement of NETPs, with a focus on understanding national readiness to enable response communications in a disaster. It also identifies targeted areas that may require attention. For a more detailed listing of potential questions that communications authorities may ask when drafting an NETP, please refer to the Emergency Communications Checklist. [5]

A1.1.5 CAP-based early warning (New Zealand) [6]

(1) Governance

The New Zealand CAP Working Group is chaired by the Ministry of Civil Defence & Emergency Management (MCDEM) and is open to anyone with an interest in promoting the general uptake of CAP, using CAP for registered alerting authority alerts and developing software or supplying hardware to support the dissemination of alerts in New Zealand.

Owing to the CAP's flexible definition of hazard levels and nomenclature, the Working Group maintains a technical standard, Common Alerting Protocol (CAP-NZ) Technical Standard [TS 04/18] , to assist with CAP implementation in the New Zealand alerting context. The standard aims to provide clarity for alerting authorities on the formatting and categorization of alerts and how those alerts should then reach the public via various alerting end-points. It encompasses the Working Group's decisions, recommendations and lexicons to ensure consistency within New Zealand's alerting environment. It is reviewed annually.

The MCDEM coordinates associated task groups and working groups, which implement information systems and alerting end-points utilizing CAP concepts such as its schema, its alert gradings of certainty, severity or urgency, its distribution through alerting end-points, and the New Zealand-specific lexicons to provide common understanding of the message contents. It also coordinates the development of best-practice messaging in New Zealand for the various end-point technologies.

The Working Group does not have any decision-making capacity; instead it makes recommendations to the Public Alerting Governance Committee, which considers and approves the specification documents produced by the Working Group.

The Public Alerting Governance Committee was established by the Hazard Risk Board, one of the governance boards of the Officials' Committee for Domestic and External Security Coordination [7] . It comprises senior officials responsible for public alerting and representatives of New Zealand mobile operators and the scientific organizations that monitor natural hazards.

(2) New Zealand CAP feeds

New Zealand currently has three public live feeds of alerting information in CAP format; a fourth is under development.

Earthquakes

GNS Science uses the GeoNet system to maintain a CAP feed of Modified Mercalli intensity "moderate" (MM5) or higher earthquakes occurring in the last seven days in the New Zealand region and of a suitable quality for alerting.

Severe weather

The Meteorological Service of New Zealand Limited (MetService) maintains a CAP feed of severe weather warnings and watches for rain, wind, snow and thunderstorms.

Civil defence emergencies

New Zealand has sixteen regional Civil Defence Emergency Management Groups. They have adopted the Red Cross Hazard App as their preferred mobile device application for notifying multiple hazards in their region. The Storm CMS is used to prepare these alert messages and their impact zones, and these are published as a CAP feed.

Emergency Mobile Alert

New Zealand's public alerting technology is cell broadcasting. A CAP feed is currently being developed by system provider One2many BV to publish these alerts and allow their uptake by multiple other channels, such as apps, websites and digital signage. It is expected to go live by the end of 2019.

(3) High-priority alerts

New Zealand's registered alerting authorities have agreed to use the CAP to share and disseminate their alerts and warnings. But the CAP is not just a data protocol, it is also a way of classifying alerts. Its classification criteria were used to define the scenarios acceptable for use by New Zealand's Emergency Mobile Alert (EMA) system. The cornerstone attributes of urgency, certainty and severity enable agencies to grade their alerts and make them comparable.

New Zealand has also adopted the unofficial, but widely accepted, definition of high-priority alerts. These are defined to be at level (a) or (b) within each of the following three CAP criteria:

Certainty

a. Observed: determined to have occurred or to be ongoing

b. Likely: probability of occurrence greater than 50%

Severity

a. Extreme: extraordinary threat to life, health or property

b. Severe: significant threat to life, health or property

Urgency

a. Immediate: responsive action should be taken immediately

b. Expected: responsive action should be taken soon

(4) Interpretations of "certainty", "severity" and "urgency"

When designing the protocol for use of the EMA system, decision-makers responsible for issuing EMA messages requested further guidance on the CAP definitions of certainty, severity and urgency in order for them to be more useful in an operational environment.

Certainty

Likely should consider that a qualitative estimate of probability may vary by up to 30 per cent, and erring on the side of caution may be preferable in some circumstances. The desire to wait for certainty is a trade-off against allowing sufficient time for action.

Severity

Extreme applies to an emergency affecting a town, city or region:

• life: widespread deaths are possible; or

• health: widespread permanently incapacitating injuries or illness are possible; or

• property: widespread destruction (or rendering uninhabitable) of buildings is possible.

Severe applies to an emergency affecting rural dwellers or a small part of a suburb in an urban area:

• life: limited deaths (i.e. individuals or small groups) are possible; or

• health: limited permanently incapacitating injuries or illness are possible; or

• property: limited (i.e. few or very localized) destruction (or rendering uninhabitable) of buildings is possible.

Urgency

Expected: soon must include time for action – the minimum amount of time people could reasonably be expected to carry out the instructions in the alert. For example:

• 5 minutes: "Do not take personal belongings other than critical medication and personal documents";

• 30 minutes: "Bring in outdoor objects such as lawn furniture, toys and garden tools, and anchor objects that cannot be brought inside".

(5) Optimal warning and guidance messages

The Working Group considers the social science around public messaging to be a logical extension of its terms of reference.

A consequence of the EMA system was the need for short warning messages of 90 characters or less, in effect the CAP headline element. A report [8] was commissioned that provides best practice for writing short warning messages for the public to achieve a desired behavioural response. It was based on an international literature review and some preliminary results from primary New Zealand research. It focused on warnings for regional tsunamis, with additional examples for a volcanic eruption and a flood event.

In order to permit a future relaxation of the 90-character limit, and for other channels featuring short messages, the guidance is useful for up to 930 characters, the technical limit for EMA messages in New Zealand under the most favourable conditions. This upper limit typically also covers social media, short emails and electronic billboards.

Another messaging initiative has been to support the Red Cross " What Now " service. This involves adapting standard multi-hazard key action messages to a New Zealand setting, to ensure consistency, clarity and safety. For each hazard, and for up to six stages of an emergency, several short, clear action messages are promoted as being the key ones for dealing with the hazard.

(6) Trigger levels matrix

New Zealand has been using the concept of a Hazard Intensity Metric (HIM). This is one or more measures that can be calibrated against their potential impacts, including causing death, injury or illness, or property damage.

The Working Group aims to set thresholds for the three critical CAP elements (certainty, severity and urgency) that work across a variety of hazards and their HIM metrics in the setting of the broadcasting and messaging end-points through which they should be distributed. For each hazard, the responsible alerting authority is consulted on the intensities that might trigger different alerting end-point behaviours. [9] For example, an EMA is only issued for high-priority alerts.

(7) New Zealand events and event codes lexicon

Like other nations, and in line with the current OASIS (Organization for the Advancement of Structured Information Standards) CAP initiative to provide a consistent set of event codes, New Zealand is creating a table of event codes that provide more specificity to the nature of the emergency. At this time, the table is restricted to those alerts available on public feeds, primarily weather and earthquakes.

With the EMA system soon to be providing its alerts as a CAP feed, further event descriptions and event codes have to be agreed, to cover situations such as boil water notices, flooding, biotoxins, hazardous substances and criminal activities. New Zealand has looked to previous work by Australia [10] and Canada [11] for guidance, but with this topic being considered at a global level, it is pausing now to ensure that it is aligned with the future direction for these elements. At this time, the event code element is not used in New Zealand.

(8) Package names

Although work has not commenced, the Working Group has identified a need to work on the standardization of "package names" describing alerts (e.g. watch, warning, bulletin, outlook). Many of these terms have long been used by the alerting authorities that issue them, and there may even be legislative implications should change be deemed desirable.

Nevertheless, it is the sentiment of the Working Group that the use of these terms should be defined more clearly and align more consistently across the impacts of hazards they describe.

(9) Conclusion

Since 2015, New Zealand's CAP Working Group has been an active committee of approximately 60 member national and local agencies, industry members from the geospatial community, and alerting app and warning system hardware manufacturers. It has provided technical guidance and an opportunity for networking and collaboration, and enjoys official government recognition of the importance of the CAP to the alerting environment.

The Working Group remains committed to supporting the worldwide CAP community and following the initiatives being spearheaded by other nations in order to ensure that the CAP is a truly global, trusted and consistent alerting protocol.

A1.1.6 ICTs in managing the effects of floods (Burundi) [12]

(1) Management of the floods in March 2019 and 2020

In March 2019 and March 2020, successive torrential rains fell in the region of Imbo and the surrounding area. The rivers which flow into Lake Tanganyika via the town of Bujumbura burst their banks, causing material damage, including the destruction of homes, loss of life and the massive displacement of the inhabitants of Cibitoke, Bubanza and the Bujumbura districts of Buterere in 2019 and Gabtumba in March 2020.

During rescue operations, the use of mobile communications saved the lives of people in danger as a result of the floods. The use of short numbers assigned to the Burundi Red Cross and the police enabled the sick to be swiftly evacuated to hospitals in Bujumbura to receive treatment.

To assess the contribution of the telecommunication/ICT sector to disaster management, the Telecommunication Regulation and Control Agency (ARCT) carried out a survey on the use of ICTs in disaster management in Burundi. The data collected revealed that the floods and landslides in Cibitoke, Bujumbura and Bubanza resulted in casualties, displaced persons and the destruction of property and personal possessions. Flooding, strong winds and landslides had also occurred in the last five years elsewhere in the country, and ICTs played a significant role in their management.

Social media were used to involve the general public, facilitate communication between population groups, raise awareness of the situation and concerns in the event of an emergency, and facilitate the response at the local level.

(2) The role of stakeholders

Geographic Institute of Burundi

The Geographic Institute of Burundi is a public agency responsible for promoting national meteorological activities for the well-being of the population. Its mission is to provide high-quality, reliable and affordable meteorological services in line with its partners' expectations. It thus plays a part in protecting property, people and the environment in general, in line with the national objective of prosperous socio-economic development.

Burundi Red Cross

The Burundi Red Cross is a key player in the population's social development. It provides a rapid response in the event of climate change-related disasters. It has been assigned a toll-free short number so that victims of natural disasters and people in need of emergency aid can call its services free of charge.

Territorial administration

Local government plays a leading role in the protection of the population and is obliged to collaborate with stakeholders involved in fighting disasters. It has a duty to carry out awareness-raising campaigns on disaster prevention and management methods, and facilitates activities on the ground in the event of a disaster within the area administered.

National risk management platform

Burundi set up a national platform to focus on disaster management in the country by Decree No. 100/016 of 8 February 2019, on the appointment of the members of the National Platform for Disaster Risk Reduction and Management. This multi-party team is responsible for disaster-related risk prevention and management, raising awareness and taking concrete action in the event of disasters.

The media

The national radio and television service of Burundi (RTNB) is a public media outlet that contributes considerably to public information. It broadcasts weather reports for the purposes of prevention and airs information and awareness-raising campaigns during and after disasters.

Telecommunication operators

Telecommunication operators play a major role, ensuring communication and interconnection in order to relay and transmit information to users. Toll-free numbers are operational and mobile telephony, operating mainly through social media, is increasingly used to transmit information before, during and after disasters.

A1.1.7 Case studies of satellites in disaster risk reduction and management [13]

(1) Case studies of satellites

There are many examples or case studies demonstrating the vital role of satellite communications in disaster risk reduction and management. The following provide a few examples:

– In October 2016, when Hurricane Matthew struck Haiti, nine days before mobile networks were restored, satellite phones helped 2 461 people across 19 communities restore family links. VSAT equipment deployed to departmental emergency operations centres (COUDs) to replace local Internet connection stayed in place for months after the event. [14]

– In 2017, Inmarsat's high-speed solution was used by Télécoms Sans Frontières (TSF) for the first time in the wake of Hurricanes Irma and Maria in the Caribbean. [15]

– In September 2018, Inmarsat satellite connectivity supported the emergency response in three regions of the Philippines battered by Typhoon Mangkhut. [16]

– In September 2018, TSF deployed a team of technicians just hours after Sulawesi Island in Indonesia was hit by a 7.5-magnitude earthquake, triggering a deadly tsunami on 28 September 2018. With medical and food supplies in danger of running out and terrestrial communications down, it was essential to establish satellite connectivity to coordinate emergency response. [17]

– In September 2019, the Bahamas was in the path of Hurricane Dorian, the most powerful storm to hit the region since records began. The Category 5 tropical cyclone destroyed entire communities and left 70 000 people in need of food and shelter. TSF used Inmarsat's satellite connectivity to set up fast, reliable communication links for aid agencies and national governments coordinating relief efforts, as well as offering victims free satellite phone calls. [18]

(2) Policy considerations: the need for reduction of regulatory barriers

Although the previous section simply serves to highlight the role played by satellites in disaster risk reduction and management with practical examples, it is worth mentioning some of the lessons learned from disasters and some of the key policy considerations to be taken into account in order to be able to fully utilize satellite communications for disaster risk reduction and management.

Some of the lessons learned from disasters include the following:

– Disaster preparedness planning is essential.

– The business of disaster response is conducted before a disaster strikes.

– Efficient coordination and network sharing by NGOs and other end users is needed.

– Frameworks for customs clearance are required.

– Well-trained first responders and media are key.

– Prepared users drive satellite usage.

– Social networking and mobility-based applications are revolutionizing disaster response.

– Data requirements on the ground are growing dramatically.

– Responders need a mix of connectivity solutions (satellite, terrestrial, hybrid, fixed, mobile) in their daily toolkit.

Some of the key policy considerations to allow satellite communications to be most effectively used for disaster risk reduction and management include the following:

– Exemption from/temporary waiver of regulations that might restrict the use of telecommunication equipment/radio frequencies during the use of such resources for disaster mitigation and relief.

– Recognition of foreign type approval of telecommunication equipment and/or operating licences.

– Exemption from regulations that might restrict the import/export of telecommunication equipment.

– Facilitating the transit of personnel, equipment, materials and information involved in the use of telecommunication resources for disaster mitigation and relief into, out of and through the disaster area.

A1.2 Disaster communication technologies

A1.2.1 Integration of space and terrestrial emergency communication network resources (China Telecom, China) [19]

(1) Introduction

Many governments around the world have recognized that cell broadcast technology can be used to deliver emergency alert notifications. China has developed public emergency alert notifications standards based on that technology that support global roaming and are compatible with standards in Europe and the United States. The emergency alert system in China is depicted in Figure 1A.

Figure 1A: Emergency alert system in China

Legend:

应急指挥系统（20 个部门: Emergency command system (20 departments)

国家级: National level

省级: Provincial level

地、县级: Prefecture and county level

IP 通道网络: IP-based channel network

信息汇总、验证、发布: Information summary, verification and distribution

IP 分发网络: IP-based delivery network

遵循国际CAP 协议: Compliance with the CAP

预警信息传播系统: Emergency alerting system

国家应急广播系统广播电视媒体: National public alerting system

Broadcast and TV media

部门自建发布渠道: Self-built departmental dissemination channels

移动运营系统: Mobile operation system

互联网服务商: Internet service providers

地方特色预警系统: Local specialty emergency alert system

手机短信预警平台: Mobile phone SMS alerts platform

应急责任人专用通道: Dedicated channel for emergency management chief

社会公众: The general public

4G networks are being continuously improved, and it is particularly important that they be used efficiently, to ensure that mobile subscribers can receive vital emergency alert messages in time. It is strongly recommended that, for the benefit of the general public, efforts be made to develop emergency cell broadcast alerting systems based on 4G networks for use in major natural disasters and other public safety incidents such as earthquakes, typhoons and mudslides, and to ensure that 4G emergency alerting management platforms can interconnect with the existing interfaces of emergency alert management organizations.

To meet disaster mitigation and prevention needs, China Telecom has researched and developed the LTE cell broadcast technology-based multi-channel emergency alerting system. It has used the system to send emergency alert messages by concurrent mode in the shortest possible time, rendering it a vital component of the national emergency communication assurance plan. The system will be widely used in various scenarios and applications, including disaster prevention and emergency alerting.

China Telecom will further optimize its emergency alerting strategies to facilitate the inclusion of next-generation cell broadcasting in network entry standards for telecommunication equipment and will support the use of social media, including mobile Internet, to issue alerts, with a view to increasing emergency alerting capabilities.

(2) Detection and monitoring of natural disasters and other emergencies

In disaster management, IoT can be used to monitor sudden-onset natural hazards such as earthquakes and mudslides, to issue emergency alerts, and to transmit data in near real time to emergency management and command centres, thereby boosting disaster prevention and mitigation capabilities. The 3rd Generation Partnership Project has already launched a set of LTE-based narrowband IoT technologies (i.e. narrowband IOT and enhanced machine-type communication), which have expanded the LTE technology portfolio to support broader application of more energy-efficient IoT services.

To operate, conventional IoT devices rely on terrestrial communication networks, which can be easily damaged or destroyed in a severe natural disaster. Satellite IoT can compensate for that weakness. Extensive coverage, resistance to destruction and flexible network construction have together made satellite IoT irreplaceable for real-time monitoring of large areas impacted by a natural hazard.

China Telecom already has the ability to monitor and report on various natural hazards in real time using 4G IoT. It can provide end-to-end solutions, from data collection in earthquake zones to 4G-network coverage and transmission, and then to back-office processing and analysis. In 2017, in partnership with the China Earthquake Administration, China Telecom uploaded seismic data from an earthquake-affected region to a cloud platform via its IoT Link card. The monitoring data were mainly obtained from measurements of earthquake intensity, which are then used to analyse the earthquake's vibration process and real-time scenarios. Such data supplement those collected by professional seismic stations and provide a basis for decision-making and prediction.

In addition, China Telecom has used its exclusively operated satellite mobile communication system platform to provide satellite IoT applications and services, and expanded coverage of IoT monitoring applications thanks to satellite IoT terminal devices. Monitoring and detection operations focus on river water levels and discharge; sediment concentrations; environmental and atmospheric conditions; cereal pests and diseases; forest fires; seismic data; natural gas production and operations; water leakages; mudslides; avalanches; wind speed and direction; and rain and snowfall.

(3) Emergency communication exercises

It is recommended that more efforts be made to conduct cross-sector and -regional emergency communication exercises by various means, including table-top exercises, full-scale exercises and functional exercises, so as to increase synergy and interconnection, operability and continuity, and to build a specialized emergency communication support team characterized by professionalism, dedication and supportiveness.

China Telecom has conducted a number of special emergency communication exercises covering various disaster recovery scenarios. The exercises feature a national specialized emergency communication support team, include programmes such as "Building a Front-line Command System", "Emergency Relief Communications Support" and "Public Network Communications Support", and demonstrate China Telecom's integrated air/ground ICT applications and cross-sector emergency communication capabilities in times of natural disaster or other emergency. Apart from deploying conventional services related to emergency communications (e.g. Tianyi (Skywings) Walkie-Talkies, satellite phones, 4G individual communications and a variety of emergency vehicles), the exercises also involve new services, such as the new generation of narrowband IoT, big-data and visual dispatch systems, and new equipment, including helicopters, mooring UAV and airborne balloons.

(4) Emergency communication command and control capabilities

An emergency communication command and control system is an integrated emergency command and control platform that integrates such functions as presentation, dispatch, deployment, dial testing and intelligent analysis.

(5) Building airborne emergency communication platforms

Built to meet the needs of three-dimensional wireless coverage, airborne emergency communication platforms consist of mooring UAVs, wireless broadband access systems, 3G/4G trunked emergency communication systems, air safety protection systems, high-definition video live broadcast systems, airborne lighting and call systems, etc.

Airborne emergency communication platforms are used in emergency zones to facilitate disaster recovery and assistance in major public safety incidents and other important events. They serve to set up wireless broadband access and 4G mobile communication and trunked communication service networks, provide users in the field with mobile and data communication services, and transmit dynamic information to back-end command and control centres. China Telecom has already developed its airborne emergency communication platform specifications and can provide the relevant solutions and services, the application scenarios of which include the following:

• Emergency communications in isolated areas without access to communications: In areas devastated by natural hazards such as earthquakes, typhoons, floods or fires and in which emergency operations are ongoing, satellite communication access systems, ad hoc mesh networks and portable 2G/4G mobile communication access systems are set up and speedily activated, in order to provide government, corporate customers and the general public with emergency mobile communication and natural disaster surveillance services.

• Emergency communications at hotspots: At communication hotspots such as cultural, sports or business events at which emergency operations are ongoing, satellite communication access systems or optical transmission access systems, ad hoc mesh networks and portable 2G/4G mobile communication access systems are set up and speedily activated to provide the media, government, business customers and the general public with emergency mobile communications and data communication services.

• Emergency communications for emergency command and control: At cultural, sports or business events and at major public safety incidents at which emergency operations are ongoing, satellite communication access systems, ad hoc mesh networks and portable 800 MHz digital trunked communication access systems are set up and speedily activated to provide police forces and public safety agencies with critical digital trunked communication services.

A1.2.2 Intelligent emergency telecommunication management (China) [20]

(1) Upgrading emergency telecommunication command and control systems utilizing Internet+ cloud computing and big data

In many parts of China, attempts have been made to apply the Internet+ to the development of emergency telecommunication command and control systems. For instance, the Shanghai communication industry has used the Internet+ to reinforce its development of the command and control system covering emergency communication vehicles, emergency support supplies and response teams. In combination with digital maps, emergency-related data such as emergency support mission statistics, emergency telecommunication vehicle utilization rates, emergency service statistics, emergency response teams and emergency support equipment have been included in the command and control system. The system enables closed-loop management of satellite resource applications and allocation and approval of material reserves. It can be easily and speedily operated via mobile apps, significantly increasing emergency response efficiency.

(2) Using big data to analyse people flows and network traffic in hotspots

Through the integrated use of Internet and big-data processing technologies, valuable information can be drawn from massive, scattered, unstructured and constantly changing data relevant to the emergency, so that the associated macro environment can be analysed and understood, and the incident's development profile can be obtained in a timely and efficient manner to support scientific decision-making.

In public safety incidents, emergency alerts can be issued using data analytics and the Internet. Big data can be used to analyse the network access and transportation modes of mobile subscribers during major conferences and exhibitions, on holidays and during festivals, in order to predict and identify areas with high-moving crowd densities or large people flows during peak hours. Data on large crowds and flow trends are used as reference information by organizers, who can then notify people in areas at high risk of a safety-related incident via mobile Internet and avoid human stampedes and crushes.

In Shanghai, where mobile Internet is flourishing, people-flow monitoring, mobile Internet perception in key areas and an analytical platform were built based on big-data analytics of 2G/3G/4G cell service statistics. The relevant analytical results are displayed in such a way as to make it easy for emergency command centres to allocate resources, dispatch personnel and troubleshoot. In abnormal field situations, the platform can identify problems before mobile subscribers perceive them, enhancing safety in mass gatherings. Similar systems developed to analyse mobile service data targeting in key areas and hotspots provide information on the total number of people (mobile subscribers), popular apps, people flow, etc.

(3) Using Internet communication tools to support emergency responses

In recent years, Internet instant messaging tools such as Wechat and QQ have also been widely used in China. They are highly efficient, fast and convenient to use for assigning emergency tasks, reporting and delivering information, etc.

In the aftermath of a major disaster in Japan, social media such as Twitter and Facebook were widely used for rescue operations and to attract donors. According to a survey conducted after the disaster, social media had an outstanding impact on the transmission of information, spreading news of disaster recovery facilities and materials much more quickly, accurately and reliably than traditional channels of communication. Widely distributed cell broadcasts and dedicated message recordings played a significant role in providing locally generated information, including on the location of emergency food and water supplies, delivery time and location of disaster recovery supplies, and psychological counseling services.

Another example is Facebook Disaster Maps. People using the Facebook app with the location service enabled receive regular information on the longitude and latitude of their position. When gathered and de-identified, such geological location data can be a source of post-disaster information. Facebook data-set types include movements of people, crowd density and Facebook Safety Check information collected after the disaster.

(4) Increased smart-city capabilities facilitate the development of intelligent emergency telecommunications

Apart from introducing new generations of ICTs to emergency telecommunications via the conventional telecommunication industry, countries around the world have shown great enthusiasm about the application of ICTs in the emergency management sector. In a 2018 report, [21] consulting firm McKinsey and Company noted that one key aspect of building smart cities is using digital technologies to improve emergency telecommunications. With more comprehensive, real-time and dynamic data, emergency response services are able to monitor emergency incidents closely and understand the changing models of needs. They are therefore able to implement emergency response plans more speedily and more cost-effectively. Emergency technological systems and emergency efforts that can be linked to the development of smart cities include at least the following: disaster early-warning systems; emergency response optimization (i.e. back-office call processing and field operations such as the strategic deployment of emergency vehicles); personal alert applications (transmitting emergency alerts such as location and voice data to emergency response services or loved ones) and smart monitoring of the operation zone. According to McKinsey and Company's analysis of research data on a large number of cities around the world, [22] cities can cut emergency response times by 20 to 35 per cent on average by deploying new types of smart applications (e.g. smart systems to optimize call centres and field operations; traffic signal pre-emption to clear lanes for emergency vehicles). More mature cities with an already low response time of eight minutes can shave almost two more minutes off by doing smart-city upgrades and retrofits. Less-developed cities starting with an average response time of 50 minutes might be able to trim that by at least 17 minutes by introducing new types of smart applications.

(5) Accelerated integration and development of next-generation ICTs and emergency telecommunications

The future will see an accelerated integration of next-generation ICTs such as big data and AI into emergency telecommunication systems. With the expedited restructuring and rapid iterations of core technological systems, including new generations of hardware, software and services, future emergency telecommunication technological applications will experience an increasingly manifest trend of integration and innovation. Thanks to the accelerated convergence of emergency telecommunication networks and edge computing technologies that promote and support self-perception, self-decision-making, self-optimization and self-execution, the blockchain technology that supports multiple party and reliable data storage and exchange capabilities, and virtual/enhanced reality technologies that support three-dimensional intuitive display, new types of emergency telecommunications featuring such newly emerged key elements as emergency status perception, data processing and immersive telepresence will expedite the realization of smart command and control, network control and maintenance, smart dispatch of work order tasks and smart reserves, and will help deliver opportunities for a new industrial ecosystem.

In the new development stage, with new features including physical integration of information, ubiquitous intelligence and computing, resilient platform components, data-centered operations, emergency telecommunications will enter a completely new track of smart development, embracing a historic turning point marked by capability upgrades in all dimensions. An integral part of emergency management, emergency telecommunications provide important tools for disaster mitigation and prevention. In the past, people tended to be concerned about the response times and capabilities of emergency telecommunications in the aftermath of a disaster. To a great extent, however, emergency telecommunication services should focus more on emergency preparedness. Turning disadvantages into strengths, building highly efficient emergency alert systems, delivering emergency alert messages to the public in a timely and effective manner, enhancing disaster prevention and mitigation capabilities, and improving emergency response capabilities at all levels of emergency management agencies – these are the future trends in emergency telecommunications.

A1.2.3 Emergency communication services and networks (China) [23]

(1) Overview

China suffers frequent natural disasters and therefore has a highly developed form of natural disaster prevention and response. On the other hand, state-level super-large-scale activities, sports events and so on make the task of emergency communication increasingly onerous. Whether for natural disasters or public incidents, emergency communication support has become increasingly important and urgent, raising the bar for the development of emergency communication services and networks.

(2) Current networks for emergency management in China

At present, the existing emergency communication network includes public communication networks, private networks, satellite networks, and so on.

1) Public communication networks: The existing public fixed telephone and mobile networks play an important role in emergency communication support, but find it difficult to meet all needs in emergency situations. For example, it is difficult to ensure call priority for voice communications amid the sharp increase in the number of calls during an emergency, resulting in network congestion. In the special circumstances of emergencies, it is difficult for public networks to guarantee that the need for efficient cluster scheduling capabilities will be met.

2) Private networks: Emergency communication has strict and special requirements. During a critical emergency response, when the public network cannot meet emergency communication requirements, emergency communication capability must be boosted through the private wireless communication network.

The international community has reached a consensus that government emergency response command and dispatch communications should essentially rely on dedicated wireless systems. Currently, private wireless network technologies include:

o analogue narrowband technology: analogue voice technology, providing only voice services;

o digital narrowband technology: digital speech coding and channel coding can provide voice services and narrowband data services, but not real-time video or integrated data query services;

o B-TrunC technology: LTE-based wireless broadband trunking technology can provide broadband data services such as voice services, real-time video and positioning;

o in the long run, digital narrowband networks and wireless broadband B-TrunC networks will coexist and interconnect.

3) Satellite communication networks: Communication via radio waves from satellites to relay stations has the advantage that it is not damaged during natural disasters. Satellite systems such as Tiantong and BeiDou are currently used in emergency communications.

4) Ad hoc network technology: Although ad hoc networks do not have large-scale networking capabilities, they have unique mesh capabilities that can be used as a supplementary technology for emergency rescues in wilderness areas, temporary basements and high-rise egress routes.

In addition, although China's telecommunication network has matured, its coverage is still relatively limited. Many areas prone to natural disasters and emergencies, such as oceans, mountains and deserts, have not yet achieved ground network coverage. Therefore, other communication modes, such as satellite and private communication networks, also play a very important role in emergency communication and support.

(3) Analysis of key service requirements for future emergency communications

Future emergency communication services have the following key service requirements:

1) key voice: The business that the emergency communications must guarantee;

2) real-time video: Real-time video from cameras or through UAV transmission can show the scene in real time;

3) multimedia messaging: Transmission of drawings, maps, etc., of the scene, fire, etc.;

4) remote database access: To query emergency materials information, vehicle information, personnel information, plans and so on, remotely;

5) indoor and outdoor positioning and flow tracking: Realizing real-time situational awareness of personnel, vehicles and materials;

6) interconnection: Interconnection with broadband trunking, narrowband trunking and other networks.

In order to meet the above requirements, emergency communication networks must have broadband, security/isolation, an ad hoc network, priority guarantees, fast trunking communication capabilities, high reliability, portability, and unified dispatch and command characteristics.

(4) Research on the development of new emergency communication technologies

In the future, emergency communication systems will be comprehensive information systems integrating network technologies such as private networks, public mobile networks and satellite networks, able to unify dispatch and command, and to coordinate various departments to play an effective emergency role. Development support is moving in that direction, as described below.

• In order to meet the growing demand for mobile broadband for emergency personnel, advantage should be taken of mature LTE technology in public networks and user scale efficiency to reduce costs, encourage standard research and development of key LTE technology supporting tasks and promote support for LTE-based technology.

1) Emergency communications can be delayed by damage to public infrastructure on the ground. In order to solve that problem, and to meet the need for large-capacity critical mission communication support in the incident area, regional emergency communication systems based on low-altitude platforms positioned near the ground are being studied and developed.

2) In order to provide priority services for key tasks in the public network after the IP architecture network has been fully developed, standards and solutions are being studied and developed for emergency priority services in next-generation networks.

3) Emergency communication scenarios are being studied to take advantage of 5G broadband, low latency and high reliability.

The 5G standard is constantly improving. There are still many key technologies that need to be urgently improved with a view to ensuring reliable access to emergency communications at any time, anywhere: multimedia multicast broadcasting service, enhanced security capability, end-to-end network visualization, integrated emergency command and dispatch capability, and base station non-core network working mode in emergencies.

5G plays a very important role in promoting the development of emergency communication towards broadband and intelligence. The three main 5G application scenarios – enhanced mobile broadband, ultra-reliable and low-latency communications, and massive machine-type communications – meet most emergency communication business needs for large bandwidth, low latency and high reliability. They have the potential to enhance emergency communication rescue and comprehensive emergency support capabilities, with a view to achieving a new level of emergency management.

Research is currently being carried out on the potential demand for 5G, the relevant business model and the technical support required for its use in emergency response. Various characteristic 5G+ emergency applications have been deeply excavated and incubated, including 5G+ monitoring and early warning, 5G+ safety production, 5G+ fire prevention and 5G+ emergency dispatch. In addition, some operators have 5G-equipped emergency communication vehicles.

It is anticipated that private networks and 5G public networks will work together in the future to provide guaranteed communication services for emergency management. Combinations of public and private networks will result in three-dimensional guaranteed emergency communication networks featuring space-Earth integration and interoperability, and will adapt and match emergency guaranteed communication systems.

A1.2.4 The role of social media platforms (India) [24]

(1) Artificial intelligence for disaster response

The huge volumes of real-time information generated through crowdsourced data sharing can be used, with the help of AI-based data analytics, to predict important outcomes required for response and relief. AI is the simulation of human intelligence processes by machines, especially computer systems. The processes include learning (the acquisition of information and rules imbibed in the form of algorithms for using the information), reasoning (using rules to reach approximate or definite conclusions) and self-correction. Several new and recent smartphones also have hardware optimized for AI. Machine learning is defined as the ability of machines to learn automatically by using AI. It involves the creation of algorithms that can modify themselves without human intervention or without being explicitly programmed to produce learning output. This is achieved by analysing structured data fed to a machine's algorithms. The learning process thus involves observing, processing and analysing data, and acting accordingly.

The potential opportunities and benefits of machine learning and AI have been leveraged by the Artificial Intelligence for Disaster Response platform, which uses machine learning to analyse data on natural and man-made disasters collected from tweets in real time and automatically. It is accessible to all those involved in disaster response.

(2) Social media platforms and disaster management

Social media analysis is the process by which huge volumes of data, for the most part semi-structured or non-structured, are collected from social media sites and analysed. The process uses various machine-learning algorithms, such as decision trees, support vector machines, random forests, Naive Bayes classifiers, logistic regression and the Artificial Intelligence for Disaster Response platform. These algorithms analyse the data, generate outcomes therefrom and help visualize the outcomes precisely and as desired. The resulting information can be used for search-and-rescue operations and for post-disaster triage, relief and rehabilitation. Many AI and machine-learning tools focus on how social media updates provide incident indications and contribute to situational awareness.

(3) Utilization of social media platforms for managing disasters in India

Case 1: Kerala floods

The southern Indian state of Kerala was hit by the worst floods in a century on 16 August 2018, the result of unusually high rainfall during the  monsoon season . All 14 of the state's districts were placed on red alert. Around one million people were evacuated, mainly from Chengannur , Pandanad Edanad ,  Aranmula , Kozhencherry , Ayiroor , Ranni , Pandalam , Kuttanad , Malappuram , Aluva , Chalakudy , Thrissur , Thiruvalla , Eraviperoor , Vallamkulam ,  North Paravur ,  Chellanam and Palakkad . The National Disaster Relief Force was deployed alongside the Indian Army and Navy to conduct intensive search-and-rescue operations. During the floods, thousands of people took to social media platforms via mobile phones to coordinate search, rescue and food distribution efforts, and to reach out to people who needed help. [25] The National Disaster Management Authority and the state government, for their part, used a CAP-based warning system to send alerts to mobile users. Social media were extensively used to provide information about those stranded in different parts of Kerala who needed access to relief.

As part of its coordinating efforts, the state government took to social media to share information about donations to the Chief Minister's Distress Relief Fund. [26] As the scope of the disaster became clear, it reached out to software engineers from around the world, asking them to join the state government-run Information Technology Cell to create a website. The website allowed volunteers who were helping with disaster relief in Kerala's many flood-affected districts to share the needs of stranded people so that the authorities could provide a timely response. The volunteers comforted the victims in emergency operation centres. People joined social media groups with hundreds of members who were coordinating rescue and relief efforts. They were able to reach people marooned at home and faced with medical emergencies. A team of volunteers called the Kerala Designers Collaborative compiled vital information in the form of infographics on anything from post-flood car maintenance (check for lizards and venomous snakes, and remove moisture content from the lights) to burying animal bodies to prevent the spread of disease. The infographics were very useful and were translated into five Indian languages. [27]

Similarly, a fraternity of mechanical engineering students at a government-run engineering college at  Barton Hill  in Kerala created a group called Inspire. The group built over 100 temporary power banks and distributed them among those unable to contact their families in flood-affected areas and relief camps. A power bank could boost a mobile phone's charge by 20 per cent in minutes – a critical feature for people without access to electricity. The authorities agreed to distribute the power banks, wrapping them in bubble wrap and airdropping them in to areas where people were marooned . As the waters receded, ordinary citizens tweeted about where to go for free medical care and other services. [28] Charity organizations used their  website s to collect donations for relief kits.

Case 2: Use of social media during the Chennai flood

Between October and December 2015, the southern Indian state of Tamil Nadu received 90 per cent more rainfall than during a normal monsoon season, because of El Niño. The state capital, Chennai, received more rainfall than at any other time in this century. The flood caused severe damages, made even worse by poor urban planning and drainage systems. An estimated 500 or more people were killed and 1.8 million displaced, with huge economic losses ranging in the thousands of millions of rupees. The Indian Army and Navy were deployed in the city for search-and-rescue operations, Chennai airport was closed and several other transport facilities in the city came to a standstill. During this testing time, people used social media extensively to connect to the outside world. [29] The calamity brought out thousands of helping hands. Chennai residents took to social media to offer their homes to strangers seeking shelter from the rain and floods. #ChennaiFloods and #ChennaiRainHelps were used by victims and volunteers alike to find/offer shelter, food, transport and even mobile phone recharges, share government helpline numbers, provide information on NGOs offering help, etc.

Case 3: Fighting drought with the help of the Internet of Things

A Hyderabad-based start-up has offered technology-based solutions in crucial sectors such as agriculture, water management, education and smart-city planning. [30] It has built a water resources information and management system for India's southern states. Its website enables the public to view information on rainfall, ground water, reservoirs – major, medium and minor – soil moisture, rivers and streams, irrigation canals and environmental factors like temperature, humidity, sunshine and wind speed. The technological solutions offered are powered by IoT devices such as automatic weather stations, ground water sensors, and reservoir and canal level sensors, backed up by satellite-based imagery and manual data. As a result, all data relevant to water are available on one platform and presented in real time for all the water-related assets of a large state, county, district or block. Information on water stress mitigation is also available. The AI-based system is being trained to learn and produce effective results. The application uses the same data to produce village water budgets on the basis of village water supply and demand. The water budgets make villagers aware of their water sources, impending water crises and water stress mitigation possibilities, helping to fight droughts.

Case 4: Using AI to enhance crop yield

The International Crop Research Institute for the Semi-Arid Tropics, a non-profit, non-political agricultural research organization for development in Asia and sub-Saharan Africa, has developed a sowing app that uses AI, cloud machine learning, satellite imagery and advanced analytics to help smallholder farmers increase their incomes through higher crop yields and greater price control. [31] The app helps farmers gauge the right time to sow their crops, using an AI-based study of climate data collected over 30 years in the Devanakonda area of Andhra Pradesh. The Moisture Adequacy Index (MAI) is the standardized measure used to assess whether rainfall and soil moisture will be adequate to meet the water requirement of crops. The real-time MAI is calculated from the daily rainfall recorded and reported by the Andhra Pradesh State Development Planning Society. The future MAI is calculated from weather forecasting models. Sowing advisories are issued accordingly; they indicate an optimal sowing date, the need for soil test-based fertilizer and farmyard manure, seed treatment, optimum sowing depth, etc. This AI-based sowing advisory leads to 30 per cent higher yields and helps farmers exercise better price control.

A1.2.5 Delivering communication services to disaster zones (China) [32]

(1) Integrating UAV and wireless communication technology

In recent decades, wireless communication migrated rapidly from voice-dominated 2G to data-dominated 3G and 4G. It is now entering the 5G era, which is characterized by the Internet of Everything. In the past, wireless signals mainly covered people and objects on the ground, without aerial coverage specifically designed for UAVs. Low-altitude digitization is therefore a treasure to be explored. UAVs have been partially networked in 4G networks.

Mobile networks continue to offer people greater choices in terms of means of communication and daily life; they also enable the digital transformation of all industries, improving operational efficiency and service quality. The brand-new 5G network architecture represents another leap in network performance, providing over 10 Gbit/s of bandwidth, millisecond latency and ultra-high density connection. ITU proposes three 5G scenarios: enhanced Mobile Broadband, ultra-reliable and low-latency communications, and massive machine-type communications. Compared with 4G networks, 5G networks are better able to meet the communication needs of most UAV application scenarios. Networked UAV will drive the application upgrade of multiple scenarios.

The integration of 5G cellular mobile technology and UAVs makes what was once inconceivable possible. To satisfy future needs for more automated and intelligent UAV applications, such as autonomous flight and flight in formation, greater demands will be made of mobile communication network capabilities.

(2) Demand analysis of UAV emergency scenarios

1) In the event of a natural disaster, UAVs can quickly put high-altitude base stations in place to restore communication functions (voice and data).

Traditionally, emergency communication vehicles are used temporarily to ensure communications when earthquakes, floods, mudslides and other natural disasters cause large-scale disruptions. However, such vehicles provide relatively limited service coverage and have weak signal stability, owing to limitations in technology, hardware and other factors; it may even be impossible to transport them to the central disaster area if roads collapse or are congested. This traditional way of setting up emergency communication stations and restoring base stations is therefore inefficient, costly, difficult and time-consuming. The maturity of UAV technology and its integration into emergency communication systems make it a new, faster and more convenient way for operators to restore communications in disaster areas.

2) During major sports events when traffic increases sharply, UAVs help ensure uninterrupted communication, build networks and provide aerial video footage.

(3) UAV emergency communication mode

1) Tethered UAV + high-altitude base station

Tethered UAV systems are powered from the ground and raised to a UAV take-off platform by a tethering cable capable of uninterrupted flight. Once the UAV aerial base station is working, ground power-generating devices supply power to the tethered system and the onboard remote radio units. The onboard units communicate with the emergency communication vehicles via ground baseband unit devices using the fibre-optic line of the tethered system, and the emergency communication vehicles can connect to the nearby base station tower via microwave devices, optical fibre or satellite communication vehicles, and then relay the signal to the core network to achieve mobile signal coverage. The impact of terrain on the electromagnetic wave is thus effectively dealt with and continuous coverage guaranteed in a certain area.

UAV emergency high-altitude base stations can cover up to about 50 square kilometres and provide instant messaging service to thousands of mobile phone users simultaneously. Capable of climbing quickly to between 50 and 200 metres, they can provide 24-hour uninterrupted VoLTE and other data services to disaster areas.

In a natural disaster, tethered UAVs used in combination with aerial base stations can quickly restore onsite communications, address the problem of signal coverage in emergency situations and effectively improve the emergency communication support capability of the government and operators in response to natural disasters.

Tethered UAVs, which can stay in the air for long periods and carry large payloads, can be used in conjunction with high-altitude searchlights and loudspeakers to provide high-altitude illumination over large areas to support rescue operations at night. Loudspeakers facilitate command and coordination of people onsite, message broadcasting and other similar tasks, and improve the level of hardware support onsite. Using a mount-and-drop mechanism, UAVs can carry rescue items into areas too difficult and dangerous to access at short notice and with a heavy load.

The mobile phones of people trapped in an area covered by a UAV base station will be automatically connected to the onboard base station, which will send the user's international mobile subscriber identity number and current geographic information in graphical form to the search-and-rescue teams in real time.

This all-new emergency communication method aims to solve the problems of slow device deployment, high cost and poor environmental adaptability. It features quick response capabilities, is easy to operate, provides flexible coverage, can be airborne for long periods and is readily scalable.

2) Fixed-wing UAV + high-altitude base station

Large fixed-wing UAVs carrying mobile communication base stations and satellite communication systems, when flown to a target area, can provide stable continuous mobile signal coverage over a long period (not less than 24 hours) in an area of more than 30 square kilometres, thus restoring communications in no time and reducing loss of life and property in the disaster area.

A networked fixed-wing UAV equipped with an orthographic camera and a photoelectric pod can be used to obtain the GIS data needed for rapid data transmission and efficient generation of a three-dimensional map of an earthquake area, providing a basis for rescue decisions.

During single-soldier system drills, ground advance teams can report key rescue information, send back real-time video and images, and quickly dispatch rescue personnel and equipment based on the GIS data, effectively improving the timeliness and accuracy of emergency rescue operations.

(4) UAV emergency communication: next steps

Standard-setting is one of the challenges facing UAV emergency communications. China is developing technical requirements for the emergency communications of high-altitude base stations with tethered UAVs. In addition, since ordinary base stations provide mainly ground coverage, UAVs need special base stations for aerial coverage. 5G UAVs currently rely on the general 5G Customer Premises Equipment used to convert 5G signals to Wi-Fi signals for communication; in the future, dedicated terminals and 5G communication modules will be needed to improve integration.

Meanwhile, China has issued successive series of regulations on UAV production, sales and flight. Regulations concerning the transaction process include the Regulations on the Management of Real-name Registration of Civil Unmanned Aircraft and the Interim Regulations on the Management of Unmanned Aircraft Flight (Draft for Comments). The difficulties related to flight plan applications, the complicated procedures involved and other issues are expected to be resolved following the establishment of a comprehensive UAV regulatory platform. In terms of corporate operations, the Management Measures for the Operational Flight Activities of Civilian Unmanned Aircraft (Interim) have greatly simplified the entry requirements for unmanned aircraft operating licenses, retaining only basic licensing requirements such as corporate legal persons, real-name registered unmanned aircraft, certified training capabilities (for enterprises in the training category) and ground third-party liability insurance.

A1.2.6 Locally Accessible Cloud System (Japan) [33]

(1) Background

Every year, the global community faces numerous disasters, including earthquakes, typhoons and floods. Such disasters often damage social infrastructure like telecommunication networks, electric power distribution networks and transportation systems, severely disrupting the lives of people.

When disasters occur, telecommunication networks may be damaged. Base stations for mobile communication services, access network cables, communication equipment and even communication buildings can be damaged in large-scale disasters. The damages cause outages of telecommunication services including not only fixed/mobile telephone services, but also Internet services and any other services delivered over the Internet. To address this issue, movable and deployable ICT resource units have been proposed and standardized. Their chief objective is to restore fixed/mobile telephone services. With the growing use of smartphones, people have come to rely heavily on Internet-based services for social networking, information searches and e-commerce. Restoring Internet-based services is becoming a key aspect in disaster situations.

The Japanese Government endorsed research and development projects on disaster-management technologies after the Great East Japan Earthquake in 2011. In one of the projects, the Cabinet Office's Strategic Innovation Programme conducted several disaster-management exercises involving movable and deployable ICT resource units (MDRUs); it aims to implement the results throughout society. MDRUs can provide telephone and file-exchange services using Wi-Fi and IP-PBX when telecommunication infrastructure is damaged. Similar to the MDRU, one of the Programme's solutions is the Locally Accessible Cloud System (LACS), which instantly provides Internet-based service in local disaster areas.

A LACS feasibility study carried out in the Philippines in December 2019 examined the use of LACS for e-education and e-health in island areas.

(2) Introducing the Locally Accessible Cloud System

The LACS comprises a Wi-Fi access point, a small PC server, a battery and other peripheral devices assembled in a portable carrying case (see Figure 2A) for easy transport to disaster-affected areas. The server acts as a web server and offers the basic communication functions required in disaster situations. The LACS offers basic communication functions, including information broadcasting, information sharing and bi-directional communication between users, although service delivery is restricted to small areas, namely, the area around the LACS. The LACS handles demands for local communications, which is generally where most demand is. Users access the service using a Wi-Fi-enabled network device like a smartphone to deliver and collect information and to communicate locally with people like family members, friends and neighbours. They can send and receive large-size content in the form of text, voice, videos and still images. The LACS is able to collaborate with other systems (e.g. Internet disaster-management systems) once its access to the Internet has been restored.

Figure 2A: LACS pilot product

Users can access the top page of the LACS server over the web browser, as shown in Figure 3A. By clicking on the icons at the bottom of the top page, they can access the functions the system offers. The pilot product offers three basic functions: the "Important notices" function delivers important information from authorized organizations like local governments and hospitals; the "Bulletin board" function enables users to share information; and the "Messaging" function enables them to exchange messages, still images and videos. "Registration" is a management function for user registration. Users who upload information via the important notice and/or bulletin board function or who use the messaging function are required to register so that they can be identified in the system.

Figure 3A: LACS basic functions

(3) Case study in the Philippines

The LACS is not only an answer to communication difficulties in disaster situations; it can also be used in ordinary, non-disaster situations. Its anticipated users are disaster relief workers (including government, police and hospital staff), people in disaster areas and residents in developing countries. The LACS is expected to play an important role in developing countries with insufficient networking infrastructure.

In order to confirm the feasibility of the LACS concept, an experiment was conducted in the Philippines with the cooperation of Cordova municipality in Cebu, in the central Philippines. Figure 4A shows the location and setup. A LACS server and Wi-Fi access point equipment were installed in the Cordova municipal office to form a locally accessible cloud environment. The local area was extended to the fire station, located 100 metres from the municipal office, using point-to-point fixed wireless access equipment and a Wi-Fi access point installed in the fire station.

The experiment was conducted for both the residents of Barangay Poblacion, a part of Cordova municipality, and students of Cordova Public College. In the first experiment, to test LACS e-education possibilities, students used the LACS file-sharing function to download an educational video to their smartphones, then watched the video on their smartphones and uploaded their comments to the LACS bulletin board for their teacher. In the second experiment, a disaster simulation, residents of Barangay Poblacion were asked to use the LACS bulletin board to take pictures of supposed disaster areas and upload them to the LACS server, so that officials in municipal offices could confirm the status of disaster areas. To demonstrate the system's e-health possibilities, selected residents consulted medical professionals using the LACS video communication function.

The experiment's 32 participants were asked to evaluate the LACS. All the participants said that the LACS was useful during disasters and in ordinary times; 99 per cent found the LACS easy to use.

Figure 4A: Experimental set-up in Cordova, Cebu

A1.2.7 Balloon-enabled preparedness and emergency telecommunication solutions (Loon LLC, United States) [34]

(1) Overview

Loon is a network of high-altitude balloons designed to deliver stratospheric Internet connectivity to unserved and underserved communities around the world (see Figure 5A). The network aims to connect people everywhere by inventing and integrating new and emerging technologies and concepts.

Figure 5A: Illustration of stratospheric Internet delivery

Each balloon carries a payload with an LTE base station connecting users to the network of the local mobile operator. With the advantage of height, one balloon can transmit service over an area 20 to 30 times greater than a traditional ground-based system. Unlike cell-on-wheels or satellite technologies, each balloon can connect directly to LTE/4G smartphones, including in remote and hard-to-serve areas (islands, mountains, jungles). The network (including mesh links between balloons) operates above the ground and is therefore weather resilient, with independent solar power for each balloon and minimal ground logistics. It can be deployed quickly if infrastructure and network integration are prepared ahead of a crisis and the vehicles are properly positioned.

The most effective communication system is one that can expediently provide basic Internet connectivity to the public and emergency response providers after natural disasters, and offer disaster preparedness service to mobile network operators to quickly reconnect people on the ground. Therefore, preparedness and related training activities are the most effective ways to be ready for disasters, whether natural or man-made.

It is imperative to work in close partnership with local aviation and telecommunication authorities, and to partner with local mobile network operators, to ensure integration with existing network equipment before disaster strikes. On regulatory matters, Loon LLC works with local partners to obtain all necessary approvals for spectrum use, aviation overflights and other operating requirements. With the local carrier partner, it pre-installs ground equipment in the country or region, prepositions fleet resources, and performs network integration and testing with the telecom partner.

(2) Disaster preparedness service description

Loon LLC has extensive experience of preparedness planning and recovery communication operations, and has developed a robust set of tools for non-disaster communications. In collaboration with local mobile network operators, regulators and other stakeholders, it offers a three-phase service: initial set-up and integration; ongoing "stand-by" operations; and emergency service activation.

Phase 1: Set-up

In the initial integration phase, Loon LLC works to:

• coordinate regional ground station certification with regulators;

• complete an assessment of installation, operation and maintenance considering geographic diversity;

• secure reliable, high-speed IP connectivity from ground station locations to the Loon-evolved packet core (EPC), in collaboration with local cable operators;

• integrate the balloon-based network and Loon EPC components with a local mobile operator, IP exchange provider, or Telecom Roaming Sponsor;

• to secure authorization for Loon-compatible LTE spectrum bands (e.g. Band 28) and for millimetre wave (mmWave) spectrum for backhaul and balloon-to-balloon links (E band, 71-76 GHz and 81-86 GHz);

• conduct end-to-end ground-to-balloon-to-LTE user testing;

• secure overflight approvals from local aviation authorities to operate the balloons over each country.

Phase 2: Stand-by

After integration, Loon LLC prepares the fleet and network for expedient emergency response by performing the following activities:

• monitor weather patterns, providing guidance for locations where telecom networks may be impacted by weather;

• pre-position a balloon fleet to expediently navigate to impacted areas, with expected time-to-destination 24/7 air traffic and radio coordination.

Phase 3: Service activation

In the event of an emergency, Loon LLC:

• makes reasonable best efforts to provide a balloon-based LTE radio access network for local operator subscribers at designated locations and times (this may be affected by the severity of the disaster, other location factors, weather and coordination with the local carrier partner);

• customizes each coverage area's network availability capacity by monitoring demand levels and areas of determined need;

• coordinates with carrier partners to provide network outage reporting as required or needed to regulatory agencies.

(3) Regulatory requirements to enable the stratospheric Internet

Meeting regulatory mandates is critical for successful deployment of stratospheric Internet for preparedness and emergency communications.

Equipment homologation: The ground station equipment is certified to national regulatory requirements before use. This includes equipment type approval, electromagnetic compatibility, safety and demonstrating that the equipment has met national radio spectrum requirements.

Streamlined import process: Ground stations, which are compact systems measuring 1.3 m across by 1.6 m high, connect the mmWave backhaul service to the LTE service. Typically, two ground stations are deployed to cover a service area, with options for both roof and tower mounting. The number of ground stations depends on the geography, the local carrier partner's network and the area needing to be covered.

Spectrum authorizations, for both mmWave and LTE: Two spectrum bands are used to enable Loon technology. The first is mmWave spectrum in the E band (71-76 GHz/81-86 GHz), which is used between the balloons and with the ground station, to provide backhaul service. The second is the local operator partner's LTE spectrum, to provide connectivity between the balloons and the user equipment.

Authorization to use the E band for backhaul is critical for providing the stratospheric Internet. The E band is a 71-76 GHz uplink paired with an 81-86 GHz downlink. A channel bandwidth of 750 MHz is used to ensure sufficient system capacity. Two frequency pairs are used per site, with centre frequencies of 71 500 MHz / 81 500 MHz and 74 000 MHz / 84 000 MHz. The backhaul service is integrated into the local carrier partner's network.

To transmit the LTE spectrum, the local carrier partner identifies spectrum bands between 700 and 900 MHz. Loon LLC ensures that its technology meets any national licensing requirements. It works with local agencies and does testing with the local carrier to ensure that there are no interference issues that could disrupt other services within the country.

Cross-border coordination: The technology can geofence areas to mitigate interference. The Loon carrier partner has also done previous work and achieved regulatory approvals to operate in an area under its licensing terms.

Other non-telecommunication regulatory considerations

– Overflight authorizations: The balloons require overflight authorization from the civil aviation authority of every country that they may fly over.

– Business registration: Loon LLC is not a direct customer-facing entity; the local mobile operator still represents the service and handles all billing and related customer-facing operations.

(4) Recommendations/lessons learned

The following recommendations should be considered to allow innovative solutions like stratospheric Internet to occur.

Consider an overall spectrum strategy, including mmWave and 5G applications

– Members States are encouraged to consider spectrum licensing in the larger context of technological developments and what applications they would like to enable. Loon LLC uses E-band spectrum for backhaul services because it has wide channels that enable long range, narrowly targeted communications between directional antennas. Member States have different ways of licensing E band, from licence exempt to self-coordinated and flexible licensing. In the United States, there is a "flexible licensing" scheme for the E band that allows for innovative uses of mmWave spectrum but nonetheless requires that users seek licensing from the Federal Communications Commission. That entails coordination across the Government and registering individual links in a third-party database. This transparency also allows for efficient and innovative use of the spectrum to spur competition in the industry.

– In countries like the United States, having a database of spectrum licence holders has enhanced understanding of the market potential and ways to use spectrum more efficiently. Member States should also consider ways to assess their spectrum assets and make spectrum holdings and usage transparent, to enable future thinking about how to use spectrum more efficiently, particularly as new technologies are developed and deployed.

– A complementary strategy to enable innovation is to consider how experimental licences would allow for proof-of-concept ideas to move to commercialization. In many cases, companies apply for an experimental licence to test technologies over the airwaves, but after the licence expires, there is no clear regulatory path for transitioning to a commercial licence.

Streamline homologation procedures and timeframes

– Support innovative technologies by developing streamlined national or regional processes to certify equipment that can be used to supply preparedness or emergency communication services. These requirements should be made publicly available, for example, on the regulator's website.

– In most cases, it might be possible to utilize the supplier's declaration of conformity to show that equipment meets a country's technical specifications. If a country does not allow such declarations, countries and regions should consider developing a common set of homologation requirements for emergency communication equipment, to facilitate speed and availability.

Streamline equipment import processes

Countries can support innovative technologies by making it easier for local providers to partner with companies like Loon to deliver services. While a country may have emergency procedures to allow the import of equipment to provide communications in times of disaster, the focus on preparedness means that equipment procedures should be predictable and timely.

Encourage cross-border coordination for innovative services

Serious consideration must be given to the ability to protect communication services from interference. Countries can encourage all carriers to coordinate in a timely and effective manner to effectively operate systems that serve communities in time of need. This may include network management opportunities like using facilities across borders, as long as this is compliant with related telecommunication regulations.

Partner with civil aviation authorities to approve overflight authorizations

In most countries, overflight authorization is approved by the national civil aviation authority. To ensure that aerial connectivity solutions are available during and after emergencies, telecommunication regulators should work collaboratively with civil aviation authorities in support of the necessary overflight authorizations.

A1.2.8 Ka + 4G model in emergency response and disaster relief (China) [35]

(1) Overview

In order to meet the requirements for the activation of 4G base stations at emergency disaster sites, satellite communication is usually used as the means of relay and backhaul for emergency base stations. However, because of transmission capacity and cost factors, traditional satellite communication can only provide satellite relay capability up to about 2 Mbit/s, and can therefore meet the application requirements of basic voice and low-speed data services only below 2Mbit/s; it is difficult to meet the requirements for relay and backhaul of 4G base stations.

The new-generation Ka high-throughput satellites (HTS) have technical features such as multi-spot beams, frequency reuse and high beam gains. Compared with a traditional communication satellite, Ka HTS have advantages in terms of capacity and unit bandwidth cost, which can help address the bottleneck created when traditional satellites are used for 4G base station backhaul.

Chinasat-16 is the first geostationary HTS in China. It has 26 spot beams and provides Ka frequency band HTS communication services, with a total system capacity of 20 Gbit/s. It provides the end users with an access speed of up to 150 Mbit/s in downlink and 12 Mbit/s in uplink, delivering satellite broadband Internet in the true sense.

China Telecom is actively conducting studies on the application of Ka HTS in the field of emergency communication to explore how to implement the Ka + 4G application model and improve the application capability of emergency satellite broadband services. It has also applied relevant study results to actual emergency communication guarantee tasks and achieved excellent results. Depending on the characteristics and business requirements of different emergency scenarios, there are two different satellite backhaul models for 4G emergency base stations.

Two-layer private line model

The two-layer private line model connects the Ka HTS network to the bearer network on the ground; from there, the satellite network is connected to the mobile core network (see Figure 6A). As it extends the wide-area wireless coverage of the existing 4G network, this model can meet the access requirements of most base stations in the public network. It has the advantages of stable transmission quality and strong 4G service capability, and is therefore widely used in various emergency communication guarantee scenarios.

Figure 6A: Topology of a two-layer private line model

In order to be simultaneously activated in different regions within the same network architecture, different types of service need to be segregated and isolated. Two-layer services mainly rely on virtual local area network tagging and related IP addresses for service segregation and isolation.

Three-layer Internet model

The three-layer Internet model, which is based on the public Internet through a secure encrypted IPsec tunnel and a dedicated service gateway, connects the satellite communication to the bearer network on the ground; from there, satellite communication is connected to the mobile core network (See Figure 7A).

This model is mainly suitable for access by small base stations. It can quickly activate emergency base stations through public interconnection when there is a lack of private line transmission on the ground. It can provide various emergency broadband value-added services through innovative technologies such as multi-access edge computing and software-defined networking.

Figure 7A: Topology of a three-layer Internet model

(2) Application promotion

Having completed its study of the innovative application of Ka HTS for emergency communication, China Telecom has gained a comprehensive and systematic understanding of the functional characteristics and business capabilities of HTS, and obtained a huge amount of first-hand test data, laying the technical foundation for the applications of Ka HTS in actual situations of emergency response and disaster relief. The technology has also been tested in an actual situation.

On 20 August 2019, torrential rainfall and heavy mudslides occurred in Wenchuan, Aba, and communications in many towns and villages in Wenchuan County were interrupted. At the disaster relief site, the mobile communication bureau of China Telecom in Sichuan activated the 4G backpack base station through the Ka portable station based on the two-layer private line model to guarantee 4G services for the staff in the emergency response command and control office. The overall system topology is shown in Figure 8A.

Figure 8A: Topology for the application of Ka + 4G when mudslides struck Wenchuan, Aba, on 20 August 2019

The onsite service testing data are shown in Figure 9A.

Figure 9A: Screenshot of service testing data of the 4G backpack base station

• Download rate: 57.2 Mbit/s (the Ka satellite station downlink speed limit is 60 Mbit/s)

• Upload rate: 4.28 Mbit/s (the Ka satellite station uplink speed limit is 10 Mbit/s)

• Latency: 700 ms

• Jitter: 11 ms

• Coverage distance: 200-300 metres

• Test environment: moderate to heavy rain, thick clouds, and a Ka satellite receive level of about 11 dB.

A1.2.9 Satellite connectivity for early warning (ESOA) [36]

Early warning is as much about satellite communications as it is about satellite imagery. Imagery is necessary but so is communication. Satellite communications play an important role because they enable real-time data for real-time action. Specifically, they provide solutions for areas where it is often difficult to send people and in response to large threats and risks, and they enable data delivery for an unlimited number of users, often using small, low-power, portable terminals.

Below are some examples that show how satellite plays an important role for early-warning systems and monitoring of earthquakes; tsunamis; floods; wildfires; and mining.

Fighting wildfires

The destructiveness of a fire can be devastating. Emergency workers may not have the manpower to manage a growing fire or must evacuate for safety reasons before a fire is out. The solution includes a mobile trailer containing hoses and sprinklers carried on a mobile platform that can be remote-controlled from a laptop or mobile phone relying on satellite/cellular terminals depending on the location and network coverage. [37]

Tailings dam monitoring

The mining industry increasingly stores often toxic or radioactive by-products in so-called 'tailings dams'. A failure of the dam can have disastrous consequences for the environment and so constant monitoring is essential. The solution collects data from sensors distributed along the dam which are then transferred across a satellite network to a single cloud dashboard. This enables mining companies and other stakeholders to gain a comprehensive view of the status of their dams with detailed metrics such as pond elevation, piezometric pressures, inclinometer readings and weather conditions displayed in one place, no matter where the mine is located, minimizing environmental risks and achieving high levels of safety. [38]

Early flood warning

Water levels are on the rise in many places for various reasons, and require constant monitoring. The solution consists of several water-level monitoring sites with stream gauges connected to a satellite messaging terminal frequently powered by solar panels. Changes in water levels are transmitted via satellite to a central monitoring site. Since many of the monitoring stations are in mountains, canyons and other remote areas, satellite messaging terminals provide a cost-effective means to install a communication link where other services providing real-time data and guaranteeing data delivery are not available. [39]

Earthquake and tsunami detection

The increasing disasters in the world include earthquakes and tsunamis, and several solutions that rely on satellite communications are implemented in some parts of the world. These range from sensors along coastlines measuring minute changes in tides or currents, to broadband stations deployed across a territory measuring seismic movements, or deep-ocean tsunami detectors. The solutions rely on satellite to transmit real-time data for international coordination and early warning – often through WMO's Global Telecom System. [40] , [41] , [42] .

Safety systems are often seen as a cost and only considered once a disaster has happened. Solutions to increase our preparedness for climate change and other disasters are available today.

A1.2.10 "SOCDA" chatbot system for disaster management (NICT, Japan)

(1) Background

Every year, the global community faces numerous disasters, including earthquakes, typhoons and floods. Such disasters often damage social infrastructure like telecommunication networks, electric power distribution networks and transportation systems, severely disrupting the lives of people.

SNS are known to be useful not only for individual communications but also for collecting information on damages for first responders. They have been used in recent floods caused by severe storms and heavy rains in Japan. However, it is also well known that SNS can cause confusion, because the information they are used to spread is not always true; it may be misleading or even fake. The NICT has been developing an SNS disaster information analysis system called DISAANA, which compiles useful disaster-related information from huge volumes of SNS data, and a disaster information summarizing system called D-SUMM. An overview of the systems was provided in an NICT contribution in 2018. DISAANA and D-SUMM retrieves both disaster-related and contradictory information. When disaster strikes, information can help save lives. The type of information sought by the victims varies widely, depending on their situations, so it needs to be collected from as many sources as possible. However, postings on SNS are currently voluntary, and this means that much important disaster-related information is not reported. SNS chatbots are a useful means of collecting disaster-related information effectively. When operated on smartphones/tablets, chatbots can reach many victims and facilitate two-way communication. They can survey and deliver disaster-related information proactively.

(2) Overview

As part of the Cabinet Office's Strategic Innovation Programme, a chatbot called SOCDA (SOCial dynamics observation and victims support Dialogue Agent platform for disaster management) has been jointly developed by the NICT and other organizations. Since the Programme aims to implement research results throughout society, feasibility studies employing SOCDA have been conducted involving several local governments in Japan. Expected users of SOCDA are the national government, local governments, first responders (including medical staff) and ordinary citizens in disaster-affected areas in both developed and developing countries. They have been involved in several emergency drills and exercises simulating a natural and/or pandemic situation.

SOCDA uses AI to collect disaster-related information via SNS. It aggregates the contents by applying DISAANA and D-SUMM technologies, plots them on a map and distributes the information needed for people's timely evacuation. Citizens and first responders can use SOCDA simply by "friending" it on SNS. Figure 10A shows an example of interactive information collection using SOCDA, which answers users automatically and collects information on their situation and damages.

Figure 10A: Interactive information collection by SOCDA

SOCDA has three main functions.

1) Disaster-related information-sharing function: When a disaster occurs, users can submit a wide variety of information via SNS after friending SOCDA's account.

2) Inquiry function: A huge inquiry operation can be automated thanks to FAQ written beforehand.

3) Evacuation support function: Appropriate evacuation support information is provided for individual users in the light of their attributes and location.

(3) Case study: safety confirmation training for people requiring evacuation support

In January 2020, the Council on Artificial Intelligence for Disaster Resilience conducted a demonstration of a new safety confirmation model, using the SNS app "LINE" to confirm that around 300 people in Itami, Hyogo prefecture, were safe. The demonstration aimed to confirm that SOCDA could be used by elderly and other people who needed evacuation support. This was the first safety confirmation project employing SNS for people requiring evacuation support, including elderly persons. The demonstration was based on the assumption that Itami had been hit by a heavy earthquake at 10 a.m. After the demonstration started, SOCDA sent safety confirmation messages to all participants, who answered questions such as "Please tell me where you are now" and "Is the health of the person requiring nursing care okay?" By 4 p.m., replies had been received from nine people in need of evacuation assistance and 32 people had heard from relatives.

The demonstration also aimed to collect disaster-related information, including reports on the disaster situation sent by city officials. The information was aggregated by SOCDA and used at the city disaster-response headquarters.

(4) Case study: training in disaster information sharing (heavy rainfall)

In June 2020, the Council on Artificial Intelligence for Disaster Resilience conducted a demonstration in Kurashiki, Okayama prefecture, where many people had been affected by heavy rainfall in June 2018. People had observed how difficult it was to know what was happening at the time of evacuation, so the purpose of the demonstration was to share information throughout the region.

The training involved local residents using an SNS account on a smartphone/tablet on which SOCDA had been installed. Information on rising water levels in the Takahashi and Oda rivers that could trigger floods was posted on SNS, mapped by SOCDA and sent throughout the region. The 398 participants, including local residents, posted about 270 reports. It was concluded that SOCDA is able to collect information over a wide area across multiple local governments.

(5) Case study: evacuation assistance during the COVID-19 pandemic

In a pandemic situation such as COVID-19, appropriate arrangements must be made to avoid the "Three Cs": closed spaces with poor ventilation; crowded places; and close contacts (e.g. close-range conversations at evacuation shelters). To make such arrangements, local governments need to have a full understanding of evacuation shelters, especially those where people gather voluntarily, or they will face serious difficulties.

The SOCDA AI chatbot system, which is in the research and development phase, will first provide information on such voluntary evacuation shelters and then distribute provisional information on COVID 19. SOCDA serves to visualize and analyse such situations in order to help protect people from the pandemic even in disaster evacuation shelters. Should the pandemic situation worsen, well-separated evacuation is required to avoid the "Three Cs". SOCDA can help both infected and non-infected victims by providing several types of useful information in a timely manner.

A1.2.11 Autonomous distributed ICT system (Japan) [43]

(1) Autonomous distributed ICT systems

In order to address the issues and needs facing local governments in the event of disasters, the use of an autonomous distributed ICT system should be considered as much as possible as a business system in the local governments. Such a system offers major benefits in an environment with limited telecommunications. It allows on-site workers to continue their business and share information between various remote departments and organizations, even when the telecommunication network is down. In addition, voice communication can be achieved by voice data exchanged via distributed servers.

(2) Development of the "Die-Hard Network"

NICT Japan has developed the Die-Hard Network as an autonomous distributed ICT system with a store-carry-forward network supported by vehicles for disaster countermeasures. Parts of the study were supported by the Cross-ministerial Strategic Innovation Promotion (SIP) programme of the Council for Science, Technology and Innovation (CSTI) of Japan's Cabinet Office , entitled "Enhancement of national resilience against natural disasters" (Funding agency: National Research Institute for Earth Science and Disaster Resilience - NIED).

The Die-Hard Network consists of various communication systems and several edge servers, as shown in Figure 11A. In the event of telecommunication network outage in some areas, the system can transfer rescue and/or governmental information between distributed offices and headquarters through available networks, for example a low-power wide-area (LPWA) or satellite network, or a vehicle with an edge server as a part of store-carry-forward network. The vehicle-borne edge servers go around headquarters and distributed offices in telecommunication outage areas, and send and receive data to edge servers using device-to-device (D2D) communication technology and fast initial link setup (FILS) when the vehicle approaches a distributed area. Features of the Die-Hard Network are summarized below:

– Links between distributed on-premises systems: An autonomous distributed architecture does not have a node that centrally manages and controls the system; each node provides application services as on-premises. When a connection is detected, it is possible to automatically share information between remote locations by synchronously sharing data between the nodes.

– Utilization of heterogeneous communication systems: In the event that the fixed-line telecommunication network is down, various kinds of available transmission technologies should be exploited to connect the network. For example, cellphone network, Wi-Fi, LPWA, convenience radio and satellite should be used in an appropriate manner.

– Proactive use of mobile resources: By not assuming constant connection, D2D communication technology can be used just when a vehicle with the device installed approaches, and information can be stored and transported by actively utilizing the vehicle. This type of communication network is called "store-carry-forward network" or "delay/disruption-tolerant network".

– Authentication and access control in distributed environments: Even in the event of a disaster, officers of local governments have to process secure information such as personal data. Therefore, it is necessary to restrict the connection of each node to the distributed systems and access to data and information stored and managed, so that it is allowed only via the authenticated user and terminal.

Figure 11A: Concept of Die-Hard Network

(3) Case study in Kochi prefecture in Japan

The Kochi Prefecture Comprehensive Disaster Prevention Drill was held on 9 June 2019. The nodes of the Die-Hard Network system were set up in the Kochi Central East Welfare Health Centre, the Konan City Headquarters, and the Relief Hospital and Medical Relief Centre (Akaoka Health Centre in Konan City). In this disaster medical training exercise, people were trained in information transmission using the system, such as the transmission of activity status reports from medical care centres, requests for dispatch of medical personnel and requests and consent for the acceptance of critically ill patients. An overview of the drill is shown in Figure 12A.

Figure 12A: Overview of disaster drills using Die-Hard Network

Assuming a Nankai Trough earthquake scenario in which public telecommunication networks were totally unavailable, the disaster drill was carried out using conventional means of information exchange, such as fax-based communication, involving filling out a paper form used in the prefecture and faxing it from the Medical Relief Centre to the City Headquarters, and from there to the Kochi Central East Welfare Health Centre. In parallel with this fax-based communication drill, a similar drill was carried out using the Die-Hard Network system.

With the latter system, when the report and the request were input at the Medical Relief Centre, the input text information was shared automatically and synchronously with the City Headquarters and the Prefecture Health and Welfare Centre by means of digital convenience radios. [44] At each site, the status information was automatically shared after approval processing. The drill was carried out according to the disaster drill scenario, with the system being used by city and prefecture employees.

Transmission of information that could not be accommodated in the format of the prefecture form, such as the condition of severe patients housed in medical relief centres and photos of triage tags, was also demonstrated by automatically synchronizing information through Wi-Fi via communication nodes mounted on moving vehicles. It was confirmed that the high-resolution photo data registered in the medical relief centre system were automatically synchronized to the vehicle through Wi-Fi. These data were automatically transferred from the system in medical relief centre to the server on the vehicle when the vehicle arrived at the centre's parking lot. As a result, it was confirmed that information sharing could be performed automatically by the Die-Hard Network, even in the case of large-capacity data that are difficult to transmit with the digital convenience radio during a public telecommunication blackout.

A1.3 Early-warning and alert systems

A1.3.1 CAP-based earthquake early-warning system in northern India (India) [45]

(1) Disaster-management framework in India

Due to its unique geo-climatic and socio-economic conditions, India is vulnerable in varying degrees to disasters such as floods, droughts, cyclones, tsunamis, earthquakes, landslides and forest fires. Of the country's 35 states and union territories, 27 are disaster prone. In addition, 58.6 per cent of the landmass is prone to earthquakes of moderate to very high intensity; 12 per cent is prone to floods and river erosion; of 7 516 km of coastline, 5 700 km are prone to cyclones and tsunamis; 68 per cent of arable land is vulnerable to drought; and hilly areas are at risk from landslides and avalanches. Fires, industrial accidents and other man-made disasters involving chemical, biological and radioactive materials are additional hazards that have underscored the need to strengthen mitigation, preparedness and response measures.

National Policy on Disaster Management

Pursuant to the Disaster Management Act, 2005, the National Policy on Disaster Management envisages a safe and disaster-resilient India that develops a holistic, proactive, multi-disaster-oriented and technology-driven strategy through a culture of prevention, mitigation, preparedness and response.

Earthquake Early-Warning system

Earthquakes produce vibrations – seismic waves – that travel in all directions and release huge amounts of energy. There are three types of wave (see Figure 13A):

• P waves compress and expand the ground like an accordion, travel through solids and liquids, and are fast moving and longitudinal;

• S waves vibrate from side-to-side as well as up and down, travel through solids only, and are slow moving and transversal;

• Surface waves move up and down like ocean waves; they are the slowest-travelling waves, with movement greatest at the Earth's surface and weakest beneath the surface.

Figure 13A: Types of seismic wave

During an earthquake, seismic waves radiate out from the epicentre. It is these waves that make the Earth shake and cause damage to structures. The technology exists to detect moderate to large earthquakes so quickly that a warning can be sent to locations outside the area where the earthquake begins before these destructive waves arrive. Data from a single station or from a network of stations form the basis of earthquake early warning. In a "single station" warning system, data are not sent to a central processing site. The single station alert is more prone to false alarms. The accuracy of early warnings can be enhanced by using a combination of alerts from single stations and a regional seismic network. The CISN Shake Alert demonstration system, for example, combines onsite and regional alerts for moderate to serious earthquakes. The future of earthquake early-warning systems may be in smartphones and vehicles, "smart" appliances and the increasing number of everyday objects embedded with sensors and communication chips that connect them to a global network.

Single-station approach: A single sensor located at the site to be protected detects the arrival of the P wave and sends out a warning before the arrival of the S wave. This method is simple, but is less accurate; it gives rise to false alerts and provides less warning time.

Network approach: Many seismic sensors distributed over a wide area where earthquakes are likely to occur are networked. A central site receives the data from these sensors, analyses ground motion signals, detects earthquakes and issues suitable warnings. The system maintains a higher level of readiness all the time and is more accurate in predicting quakes. Earthquake early warnings are most effective when the earthquake begins on a fault far from the current location and the rupture propagates towards that location. Earthquake early-warning messages are sent quickly to all members of the public with the help of every available ICT and IoT technology. The public is periodically sent messages and tutorials on how to understand and respond to alerts.

Earthquake early-warning alerts warn people to take protective action and trigger automatic responses in places like factories, dams and transit systems. They operate in means of transport, utilities, offices, industrial sites, medical facilities, restaurants, schools, cars and trucks, and during emergencies.

CAP-based earthquake early-warning system

ITU-T X.1303 Common alerting protocol establishes a common standard-oriented platform instead of a separate public warning system for each particular type of emergency and for each particular communication medium. The CAP is an XML-based data format for exchanging public warnings and emergencies between alerting technologies. It allows a warning message to be consistently disseminated simultaneously over many warning systems to many applications. It increases warning effectiveness and simplifies warning tasks. Standardized alerts can be received from many sources and configured for applications to process and respond as desired. By normalizing alert data across threats, jurisdictions and warning systems, the CAP can also be used to detect trends and patterns in warning activities or hostile acts. From a procedural perspective, the CAP reinforces a research-based template for effective warning message content and structure.

The CAP data structure is backward-compatible with existing alert formats, including Specific Area Message Encoding (the protocol used to encode the Emergency Alert System and NOAA Weather Radio, Wireless Emergency Alerts, etc.), while adding capabilities such as the following:

– flexible geographic targeting by using latitude/longitude "boxes" and other geospatial representations in three dimensions;

– multilingual and multi-audience messaging;

– phased and delayed effective times and expirations;

– enhanced message update and cancellation features;

– template support for framing complete and effective warning messages;

– digital encryption and signature capability; and,

– facility for digital images, audio and video.

Central and state government agencies can all receive information in the same format for the same type of application and then sound different alarms based on the information received. The CAP also detects trends and patterns in warning activity, such as might indicate an undetected hazard or hostile act. International organizations such as UNDP, ITU and WMO are urging nations to implement the CAP as an essential communications formatting step for emergency early warnings.

The main components of earthquake early-warning systems are velocity of electromagnetic waves >>> velocity of seismic waves (seismograph), propagation of seismic waves (S waves), propagation of seismic waves (P waves), instantaneous data transmission, e-warning-broadcast to the public (see Figure 14A).

Figure 14A: Earthquake early-warning systems

Earthquake early warning in northern India

Major earthquakes originating in the central Himalayas, a prominent "seismic gap", frequently rock Indian cities (including New Delhi) and industrial hubs with high population densities located 100 to 300 km from the epicentre, with a lead time of 25 to 80 seconds. This makes an earthquake early-warning system very useful. More than 100 sensors (see Figure 15A) have been deployed in the Himalayas to detect and locate seismic events potentially affecting the cities of northern India, estimate their magnitude and issue alert notifications.

Figure 15A: Earthquake early warning in northern India

Components of the CAP-based earthquake early-warning system

• Information sharing by alerting agencies such as the Indian Metrological Department, the Geological Survey of India, the Central Water Commission, the Ministry of Home Affairs and the Indian National Centre for Ocean Information: Information in the same format can be received by all central and state government agencies, which can sound different alarms based on the information received.

• Alert-forwarding media agencies (see Figure 16A) include telecom operators, All India and other radio stations, Doordarshan and other television broadcasting agencies, the National Highway Authority of India for road displays, the Internet and other related organizations. People need to receive alerts of earthquakes, cyclones and heavy rainfall in advance.

Figure 16A: Common alerting media agencies

• The earthquake early-warning system has a management platform (see Figure 17A and Figure 18A) for collecting CAP-compliant input messages in XML/JSON format sent via web portals/mobile apps/SMS in standard message format by alerting agencies; processing SMS/e-mail notifications sent to the first-level alert-generating authority (i.e. the National Disaster Management Authority); storing (BTS data are stored); transmission; and control (for state/regional warning-issuing authorities). It also has a feedback evaluation system.

Figure 17A: Earthquake early-warning management platform

Figure 18A: Management platform

In terms of information flow (see Figure 19A), the Static Disaster Management Software Platform framework has been incorporated into the national network and plans are to integrate it with the National Disaster Management Authority. Disaster areas are identified using geofencing. Manual alarms are pushed using a two-tier approach to nationwide telecom networks able to send SMS automatically to marked areas.

Figure 19A: Common alerting system – Flow of information*

* The arrows indicate the direction of sensor signals received at the designated centre, data processing and issue of warnings to end users.

A1.3.2 Implementing a CAP trial (India) [46]

(1) CAP and its use in early-warning systems

ITU-T X.1303 Common alerting protocol establishes a common standard-oriented platform instead of a separate public warning system for each particular type of emergency and for each particular communication medium.

Trials of CAP use in early-warning systems are constantly being carried out in India. ITU-T X.1303 provides a detailed description of CAP features, as summarized below:

– the CAP allows a warning message to be consistently disseminated simultaneously over many warning systems;

– standardized alerts can be received from many sources and configured for applications to process and respond as desired;

– flexible geographic targeting using latitude/longitude boxes, polygons or circles and other geospatial representations in three dimensions;

– facility for digital images, audios and videos.

International organizations such as UNDP, ITU and WMO are urging nations to implement the CAP as an essential communications formatting step for emergency early warnings.

(2) Recent trial run of CAP implementation carried out in India

Figure 20A depicts the workflow of a CAP trial carried out in different Indian states.

Figure 20A: CAP trial workflow

The CAP trials are run through the portal developed by the Centre for Development of Telematics (C-DoT), a government-owned telecommunication research and development centre.

Access to the portal has been given to alerting agencies, the National Disaster Management Authority, the state disaster management authorities of different states in India, State Governments and the Department of Telecommunications. The portal is presently connected to telecommunication service providers through the Internet or multiprotocol label switching virtual private networks, so that alerts can be passed on to telecom service users. Customers are identified through the call detail records (last six hours) or network visitor location register and the warning SMS are sent to them. The SMS are also sent by cell broadcast from the base stations lying in the polygons identified.

The CAP trial runs are summarized in Table 1A.

Table 1A: CAP trial runs

Date

Area selected

Number of recipients

7 June 2018

Small area of Marina Beach Chennai

5 181

8 June 2018

Nungembakkam, Chennai

2 768

8 June 2018

Idduki, Kerala

883

13 June 2018

Vijaywada, Andhra Pradesh

4 125

13 June 2018

Begumpet Airport, Hyderabad

3 796

14 June 2018

Dehradun, Uttarakhand

1 386

18 June 2018

Civil Secretariat Srinagar and Amarnath Yatra Route

1 001

20 June 2018

Secretariat, Dispur, Assam

2 295

29 June 2018

Bhopal, Madhya Pradesh

4 474

3 July 2018

Guwahati, Assam

7 252

25 July 2018

Dharamshala, Nahan, Reckon Peo, Chota Shimla, Himachal Pradesh

56 772

The telecom service providers involved in the trial runs were BSNL, Airtel and Reliance Jio.

The agencies involved in the trial runs were the National Disaster Management Authority; the state disaster management authorities of Tamil Nadu, Kerala, Andhra Pradesh, Uttarakhand, Jammu and Kashmir, Assam, Madhya Pradesh and Himachal Pradesh; the India Meteorological Department; State Governments; the Department of Telecommunications; and C-DoT.

During Amarnath Yatra, a total of 200 399 SMS were sent in respect of six different events between 28 June 2018 and 25 July 2018 to customers of BSNL and Reliance Jio through the C-DoT CAP early-warning platform. The SMS contained information about weather conditions so that pilgrims and government authorities could take timely precautionary action. They were also delivered to all Airtel customers using cell broadcast.

(3) Conclusion: experience gained and way forward

The trial run was initially conducted in experimental conditions and later in real conditions. The following observations were made:

– during the actual run of the CAP early-warning system, authorities, agencies and pilgrims responded well, suggesting that the system should be regularly deployed in the future;

– it took considerably longer to send SMS from mobile networks using 2G/3G (20 to 60 minutes) than from 4G networks (3 to 5 minutes);

– efforts are being made to optimize the response times, especially in 2G (which predominates in rural areas) (3G is gradually being replaced by 4G);

– smartphones club message parts if the message size exceeds the prescribed limit; normal phones do not have this facility, and efforts are being made to overcome the issue;

– the trial runs used messages in English only; efforts are being made to introduce vernacular languages for better and effective outreach.

A1.3.3 ICT disaster preparedness (China Telecom, China) [47]

(1) Disaster preparedness

There are many aspects to disaster preparedness.

• Publishing early-warning information: The ability and means to publish disaster warning information must be organized before a disaster occurs. Warnings of imminent danger should reach every customer in the designated area within 10 minutes.

• Making suggestions on the LTE SMS cell broadcasting network, terminal support and deployment, researching the specifications and requirements already in place and deployed on both the network and terminal sides of LTE SMS medium and small cell broadcasting, and putting forward relevant requirements in network planning and construction; sending early-warning information to users through various just-in-time mobile Internet means of communication (such as WeChat) (operator networks interconnected with just-in-time mobile Internet communication systems send early-warning information promptly).

• Carrying out multiple optical cable route deployments, formulating plans to transform the optical fibre cable lines on single routes or vulnerable routes in the light of the damages sustained in recent years. Employing optical fibre cable fast recovery technology such as erbium-doped fibre amplifiers in emergency communication repairs.

• Satellite transmission: scenarios and recommendations regarding the use of Ka high throughput satellites, Ku and C band satellites, various middle and low orbit satellites in emergency communications; using Ka high throughput broadband satellites to provide 4G services to mobile emergency communication vehicles, islands and remote base stations, and engaging in research on the use of Ku and C band satellites for high-definition video transmission and low orbit satellites for satellite IoT.

• Miniaturization and portability of VSAT devices, and scenarios and suggestions for their application in emergency communications: keeping track of the development of miniaturized and portable VSAT devices in various frequency bands and making it possible for a single person to carry the devices on foot to the disaster areas to open up services.

• The application scenarios and recommendations regarding short wave transmission in emergency communications: studying the application of short wave in emergency communications on account of its long transmission distance and strong damage-resistant characteristics.

• Deployment and testing of 4G/5G in emergency communication vehicles: researching the deployment of 4G equipment and the application of some 5G technologies in emergency communication vehicles. The application of spherical antennas and various new types of antenna in emergency communications has resulted in a multifold increase in capacity or directional transmission distance. Research has also been conducted on emergency communication vehicle-supported IoT applications, namely deploying narrowband-IOT equipment in emergency communication vehicles to support IoT applications.

• Studying the use of various satellite telephones and the application of satellite telephone positioning, data and SMS in emergency communications: The positioning information return, data service and SMS functions of satellite telephony are used to position and rescue people and vehicles in distress beyond mobile signal coverage.

• Researching UAV-borne base stations and the results of application scenario study, testing and field operation of tethered UAVs, wingspan UAVs, airships, helicopter-borne LTE base stations and other equipment in emergency communications: research on providing 4G services with the LTE base stations on board tethered UAVs used wireless ad hoc network devices (mesh) carried by tethered UAVs to examine how to apply the transmission relay to provide fixed and vehicle-borne base station services that are able to recover damaged transmissions and promptly access current networks to deliver 4G services during a disaster. The LTE base station satellite transmission or microwave equipment on board stratospheric airships is able to connect with current networks to offer 4G services to remote areas.

• Researching the use of mesh technology to rapidly re-establish network connections damaged by the disaster and the joint employment of mesh and UAV to commence 4G services: Wireless ad hoc network (mesh) devices serve to quickly open up the last 10 kilometres.

• Studying the specifications of the emergency command and dispatch system based on Internet+ emergency communication, with the system applied in vehicle positioning, disaster warning, resource scheduling, command and dispatch, task management and so on: The emergency vehicle location and tracking function, by providing information on real-time vehicle location, monitoring and control, vehicle status, etc., mobilizes vehicles and personnel in the vicinity to participate in disaster relief efforts as required. The system is able to display specific information on wind, rain, haze and other weather disasters, and on typhoons and earthquakes, collected from professional Internet websites at high frequencies, on the GIS map at different levels, facilitating the deployment of advance personnel with targeted early-warning information to the areas concerned. The emergency task command has put in place flat, streamlined and close-looped process monitoring to keep track of task execution. With the implementation of vehicle/personnel location and tracking, and the adoption of command and dispatch visualization, the system takes overall responsibility for managing emergency personnel, vehicles, equipment/supplies, spare parts, circuits, satellite bandwidth, and so on, thus achieving intensive emergency resource management and optimization of resource allocation, dynamic tracking of resource distribution, a fully controlled and visualized resource allocation process and whole-process management of equipment and other resources.

• Conducting research on sending the disaster scene video back to the command centre or accessing the video via Internet: By way of satellite, 4G and other means, the video of the disaster site is returned to the command centre or accessed through online terminals, personal computers, mobile phones, and so on. Examination and analysis of the quality of video service transmitted by satellite has resulted in indications of the time delay and jitter of image transmission.

• The storage and allocation of emergency supplies such as generators: keeping in reserve all kinds of fuel generator, such as 5 kW light generators, 10-12 kW generators, 30-50 kW generator vehicles, and 100-500 kW large generator vehicles for different application scenarios.

• Drills organized on the basis of real emergency situations: Based on real and simulated emergency scenarios, drills have been conducted of rapid relief team assembly and dispatch at short notice. The teams provided all kinds of emergency services in designated areas, building a well-trained and skillful corps of relief personnel.

• Training: Establishing training requirements for emergency response personnel and developing graded training content and materials.

• Studying the emergency plan preparation; formulating emergency plans in response to various disaster scenarios, defining the types and focus of the plans and conducting drills accordingly; testing the contingency plans for the command system, circuit scheduling, line repairs, emergency power supply, service launch on board emergency communication vehicles, etc., in the wake of disasters such as earthquakes, typhoons, floods and mudslides in totally cut-off areas.

(2) Disaster mitigation

Disaster mitigation also has a number of different aspects.

• Mitigation of floods: Moving low-lying machine rooms to higher ground, elevating generators and other equipment, adopting protective measures for outdoor equipment before rainstorms.

• Typhoons: Delivering generators and other emergency materials and equipment in advance to disaster areas.

• Building a robust disaster fighting network based on the disaster damage data collected over the years.

(3) Response

Disaster response also comprises a number of different aspects.

• The process of making use of the mobile phone positioning function to rescue trapped people; selectively calling and positioning mobile users in disaster areas; sending the relevant information to the rescue team to facilitate relief efforts.

• Conducting big-data analyses through mobile network-related network management and based on customer information (i.e. of damage location, number of victims and/or damage/impact/repairs), and informing the relevant government agencies of the results for use in disaster relief command.

• Following the emergency plan to rapidly restore communication services in disaster-stricken areas.

A1.3.4 Implementation of emergency alerts (Brazil) [48]

(1) Model implemented

The working group of the main stakeholders in the process (regulatory agency, telecommunication operators and civil defence organizations, represented by national and some state bodies) decided to prioritize the delivery of alerts to mobile phone users, who are more numerous than pay-TV costumers.

The regulations do not limit the technological possibilities that can be used in emergency situations, and the working group judged that the technology with the greatest reach, considering the terminals used by the Brazilian population, would be SMS, which could be implemented more quickly and at lower costs, without prejudice to future developments in other technologies such as cell broadcasting.

The first step taken by the working group was to establish the process (see Figure 21A).

Figure 21A: Establishment of the process to send SMS alerts

Legend:

Defensas civis estaduais e municipais: State and municipal civil defence

Risco desastre: Disaster risk

Usuário se cadastra, informando sua localidade para recebimento das mensagens: Users register, indicating their location for receiving messages

Usuários: Users

Mensagems são enviados para usuários cadastrados na respective localidade: Messages are sent to registered users in the location concerned

(1 e 2): (1 and 2)

The procedure consists in identifying an imminent disaster, mapping the area at risk and determining the content of the message to be sent. Then civil defence organizations access a web portal to record the event and request delivery of the message. The system platform receives the request and identifies operators in the region at risk and consumers enabled to receive the messages, which are then triggered by a concentrator agent (ABR) contracted by the operators for that purpose (broker).

The process has four main steps:

1) the campaign: inform the population that the alert service will be available in a given region, and make available to the interested parties the option of joining the service;

2) registration and emergency database: build a database of the cell phone numbers of the people interested in receiving civil defence alerts, using the postal code(s) of the places indicated during the registration process;

3) Civil defence alert: determine the region at risk, the submission period and the text of the alert message to be forwarded;

4) Alert message: the IDAP system (public alert interface) and the web portal automatically send registered alerts to the concentrator agent, which uses the database to convert the georeferenced polygon into a list of terminals for the alert message (based on the postal codes in that polygon) and each user's mobile operator.

Before the process could be implemented nationally, it was important to test the platform and the communication protocols between the various civil defence agents and telecommunication operators. Functional tests were thus conducted in 20 municipalities of Santa Catarina state starting on 7 February 2017 and in five municipalities of Paraná state starting on 13 June 2017. On 16 October 2017, the service began to be expanded first to all municipalities of those two states, then to other states, according to the schedule indicated in Table 2A.

Table 2A: Schedule for deployment of the emergency alert model

Start data

State/federative unit

16 Oct. 2017

Santa Catarina and Paraná (other municipalities)

16 Nov. 2017

São Paolo

18 Dec. 2017

Rio Grande do Sul, Rio de Janeiro and Espírito Santo

15 Jan. 2018

Minas Gerais, Matto Grosso do Sul and Goiás

19 Feb. 2018

Distrito Federal, Matto Grosso and Tocantins

19 March 2018

Bahia, Sergipe, Alagoas, Pernambuco, Paraíba, Rio Grande do Norte, Ceará, Piauí, Maranhão, Pará, Amapá, Acre, Amazonas, Rondônia and Roraima

One of the aspects of great importance for successful implementation was how the population was informed, with the regulatory agency taking active steps to distribute the schedule and forms of operation through national and local media. Whenever the service was about to expand to a particular federative unit, the agency repeated its communication with the local media for the entire population.

The service is free, so messages can be sent and received even if the user's phone has no credit or Internet access – suffice it for interested people to register to receive emergency alerts.

One of the project's limits is that users have to first register. This can be done in one of two ways:

1. When the service is provided in a municipality, the users of that municipality will receive a text message (SMS) from the number 40199 inviting them to register. In this case, the user simply responds to the message with the postal code(s) of their regions of interest. There is no limit to the number of individual postal codes per user.

2. Users who do not receive the text message (SMS) informing them about the start of the registration phase can, at any time, send a text message (SMS) to the number 40199 with the postal codes of interest.

In both cases, the user will receive a reply via text message (SMS) indicating if the registration was successful. The process is illustrated in Figure 22A.

Figure 22A: Registration and sending of alerts to citizens

(2) Civil defence organizations

In Brazil, disaster monitoring and preparation activities are headed by the Ministry of National Integration, whose National Centre for Risk and Disaster Management (CENAD) receives and consolidates information from various federal government agencies responsible for forecasting weather and temperature; assessing geological conditions in hazardous areas; monitoring the movement of tectonic plates; monitoring river basins; controlling forest and other fires; and transporting and storing hazardous products.

The agencies concerned include the National Centre for Natural Disaster Monitoring and Alerting, the Brazilian Geological Survey, the Brazilian Institute for the Environment and Renewable Natural Resources, the National Agency of Water, the Brazilian Intelligence Agency, the Centre for Weather Forecasting and Climate Studies, the National Institute of Meteorology, the Centre for Amazonia, the Armed Forces and other organizations of the Federal Executive Branch.

The data are evaluated and processed at the CENAD and forwarded to the civil protection and defence organizations of at-risk states and municipalities.

Law No. 12,608/2012, on the National System for the Protection of Civil Defence, establishes the roles of the union, states and municipalities in terms of national protection and civil defence policy. The result is a trustworthy ecosystem of public institutions and a set of voluntary initiatives integrating the common goal of preventing and mitigating the effects of natural disasters.

In disaster situations, the response is usually coordinated by the local civil defence agency; all those involved must act jointly, hence the need for local bodies to be well structured.

Further studies should include contributions or suggestions from Question 5/2 participants about the types of early-warning system used by developing countries and how to provide services to citizens and visitors (international and regional), so that they receive early-warning messages.

A1.3.5 Early warning and the collection of disaster information (NICT, Japan) [49]

(1) Torrential rainfall short-term early warnings using phased array weather radar

An increase in localized torrential rainfall events has recently been observed in urban areas in Japan. To prevent the damages caused by this kind of event, the NICT has developed phased array weather radar (PAWR). PAWR can observe three-dimensional rainfall information (radar reflectivity and Doppler velocity) every 30 seconds. It can therefore detect locally and rapidly developing cumulonimbus at an early stage. The NICT has also developed a system to monitor localized torrential rainfall using the early detection algorithm of baby rain cells. The cells are first extracted using three-dimensional radar reflectivity. The target area is covered by two PAWR, so it is less susceptible to rain attenuation. Secondly, the vertical vorticity in the baby cell is calculated using the Doppler velocity. Finally, a cell with a vertical vorticity above a threshold value is determined to develop into heavy rainfall on the ground. For the decision-support system, a dynamic hazard map (see Figure 23A) with location-dependent degree-of-risk information is produced by integrating the early detection of baby rain cells into the localized torrential rainfall and local static hazard map. The dynamic hazard map is displayed on the control screen and the warning information distributed by e-mail to a limited number of authorized staff. Real-time demonstrations were conducted in Kobe between August and October 2016. The entire system is operated using SNS data stripped of private information purchased by the NICT from third parties.

Figure 23A: Example of a dynamic hazard map produced using the PAWR

(2) Disaster data analytics systems

The NICT has developed two data analytics systems: the Disaster information SUMMarizer (D-SUMM) and the DISaster information ANAlyser (DISAANA) (for information on what the systems do, see Section 3.6 of this report). The systems are used to obtain an overview of disaster conditions, as shown on the map in Figure 24A.

Figure 24A: Example of an evacuation map generated by D-SUMM

A1.3.6 Advanced early-warning technologies (Japan) [50]

(1) Background

In 2000, Shiojiri municipality started to build an autonomous optical fibre network of 90 km (later extended to 130 km) and 75 public facilities in the city are now connected by gigabit ether network. The network is interconnected with upper-layer service providers. The municipality then established an information and incubation plaza for the IT-literate population. It built a low-power wireless area network with an ad hoc network configuration at 429 MHz. The 640 wireless repeater stations distributed are powered by solar panels and self-sustaining, thanks to their low cost and efficiently interconnected IoT sensors.

Japan is one of the first countries to experience a fall in population numbers and a declining birth rate – a serious and accelerating social phenomenon. In the coming 50 years, the population's age composition will change again, a source of further social concern. The effect on the country's rural municipalities is remarkable. The aim of building a smart society using ICT is to improve the lives of rural community dwellers and thus help suppress migration from rural to urban areas or even promote migration in the opposite direction. The IoT sensor network is partially government subsidized; Shiojiri has promoted the development of ICT-related devices and application software by small and medium-sized enterprises and the region's academic institutions (university, college and technical high school), establishing an incubation plaza where they can collaborate on ICT development. It recently invested in building a network of IoT sensors (see Figure 25A) that reaches every corner of the region and automatically collects environmental data that are then exchanged among the organizations concerned for the benefit of community dwellers. In order to meet individual household and ICT network power demands, Shiojiri invested in a biomass power plant to supply low-cost, eco-friendly and carbon neutral power to the region's 67 000 residents. The investment will contribute to regional socio-economic development in the forestry and related industries, and create job opportunities. It is expected to drive a marked improvement in the quality of life of the region's residents in the coming years.

Figure 25A: Shiojiri's environmental information data-collection platform and IoT sensor network

a) Watching children and elderly people

The network of sensors watches and locates children going to and from school and elderly people walking outside in remote communities, detecting the signal emitted by the active tag with embedded button battery that they carry.

b) Soil moisture

Sensors detect soil moisture content at 20-cm increments to predict landslides or mudslides. They send out alerts when the moisture level exceeds the threshold or safety announcements when the level goes down.

c) River water level

Sensors measure the water level of lakes and rivers. They send out alerts when the water level exceeds the threshold, so that the community can evacuate to a shelter before being hit by floods or debris.

d) Bus location

Sensors inform users of the location of buses on routes through the city every 30 seconds. In remote areas of Shiojiri, buses run every one or two hours, so this service is for the convenience of residents in remote areas.

e) Wildlife damage protection

Sensors are used to protect villagers or farmers in rural and remote areas in the suburbs of Shiojiri from wildlife such as boar and monkeys. They detect wildlife movements with a view to reducing the damages the animals cause.

f) Radioactivity

The network of sensors protects people from radioactive pollution by detecting the level of aerial radioactivity in the city.

g) Safety confirmation

Sensors locate residents when they evacuate to community shelters and compile the number of people in each shelter, confirming their safety to family and relatives.

h) Structure monitoring

Sensors monitor the age deterioration of public structures, in particular bridges, detecting abnormalities in their characteristics with a view to taking measures to suppress further deterioration.

i) Agricultural sensors

Sensors track the long-term behaviour of farmers, and agricultural and environmental data such as temperature, humidity and solar radiation, which may be useful for predicting massive insect infestations. They store expert agricultural know-how in digitized format, so that it be easily passed on to new farmers.

j) Dam inclination sensors (inclinometer) for lakes

Sensors record the micro inclinations of dam lakes over the long term; the digitized difference may indicate a dangerous change resulting in the dam bursting.

k) Environment monitoring

The environmental data such as temperature, humidity, wind direction, wind speed, solar radiation and rainfall obtained from the sensors can be digitized and stored in the cloud, for use in combination with other data.

(2) Platform for analysis of unique data collected from various IoT sensors

The unique data collected can be analysed in combination with other data obtained at other times and locations to obtain valuable information of importance for regional economic development.

(3) Case studies

a) Data such as temperature, humidity and solar radiation can be used to predict insect infestations or to reduce the amount of agricultural chemicals needed. Indeed, it may be possible to reduce pesticide use by at least one-fifth, thus lowering costs and easing environmental destruction.

b) The conventional method of gauging the risk of mud- or landslides was to draw on expert knowledge of rainfall amounts and duration. Now that soil moisture levels are detected by IoT sensors, alerts can be sent automatically to the Shiojiri municipality risk manager when the level exceeds a certain digital value. The alerts can be switched on/off automatically and accurately.

c) In the past, it was difficult to predict serious frost damage to crops. Thanks to the IoT sensor network, however, frost warnings can now be issued according to temperature and moisture levels at the sites.

A1.3.7 Emergency alerts using the Tuibida service (China) [51]

(1) Background

Because they provide the widest coverage and most effective means of reaching subscribers, mobile intelligent terminals are the most important channels for delivering emergency alert messages. As major methods of reaching target groups via terminal devices, SMS and push notifications still pose problems. While they may be highly reliable in terms of real-time messaging, SMS can only transmit text messages containing a limited number of characters and no audiovisual content; they also feature deep service entrance, and emergency alerts sent by SMS are very likely to be buried in large amounts of junk text messages. While push notifications can initiate the relevant application, pushing value-added information such as excavation maps or weather trends to subscribers, the sending of emergency alerts is affected to some extent by issues such as low reachability and a low rate of real-time delivery.

Developed jointly by the China Academy of Information and Communications Technology with China Unicom, China Mobile and China Telecom, the Tuibida service delivers the push experience via highly reliable signalling pathways provided by telecom operators. Tuibida is based on the signalling network and features capabilities, such as Quick Apps (click-to-run services, including Google's instantApp/PWA), installed on the terminal device. If the app has not been installed on the terminal device, the service offers the click-to-run function instead, ensuring that subscribers can obtain the relevant service by pushing the Tuibida notification on the terminal device.

(2) Tuibida helps deliver emergency alerts

By integrating Tuibida into the distribution of emergency alerts, longstanding problems in the delivery of emergency alerts, such as monotonous text messaging, a lack of interaction and follow-up service, and insufficient use of the capabilities of the subscriber's terminal device, can be fixed. Use of Tuibida can accelerate the transition from distributing simple text messages to emergency alert services based on mutual interaction.

Message reliability ensured by signalling and pathways

The Tuibida service employs highly reliable signalling pathways to push messages. In contrast to conventional push notifications, Tuibida has some obvious advantages. Close cooperation with telecom operators can ensure instantaneous information delivery. By classifying information so as to give emergency alerts high priority, and by connecting to the relevant signalling pathways of telecom operators, critical/red alerts can be distributed in timely fashion.

From message delivery to reaching the target audience

Currently, emergency alerts are distributed mainly via SMS text messages. One weakness of SMS is that they can only deliver text messages, whereas emergency-related services often have more valuable information to deliver to the subscriber, e.g. an excavation map in the case of an earthquake, the scope of a tsunami or the path of a typhoon.

Tuibida has a 100 per cent delivery guarantee and, thanks to better integration with instant apps, can trigger the clink-to-run function when an app is not installed on the subscriber's device. Subscribers will thus not only be informed of upcoming disasters or emerging events as they happen, they will also be provided with a variety of useful information in real time. This can have a big impact in terms of maintaining social order and strengthening public confidence in the area when a disaster or emergency happens.

From one-way broadcast to two-way interactions

At present, the distribution of emergency alerts is mainly based on one-way broadcasts. In an enduring disaster, however, two-way interaction is of huge importance, as it will not only provide substantial support for more accurate delivery of emergency alerts in follow-up efforts, it will also help subscribers help themselves. For example, conventional SMS cannot provide feedback on location information. In contrast, since the Tuibida service can invoke the QuickApp, it can obtain the subscriber's location information during an emergency and provide support for rescue efforts by fully utilizing the capabilities of the subscriber's terminal device. Such two-way interactions are of great value and significance with respect to disaster assistance and emergency relief operations.

A1.3.8 The status of remote-sensing activities (United States) [52]

(1) Early warning and prevention

Early warning and prevention include:

– disaster prediction, including the acquisition and processing of data concerning the probability of future disaster occurrence, location and duration; and

– disaster detection, including the detailed analysis of the topical likelihood and severity of a disaster event.

Meteorological aids, meteorological-satellite and Earth exploration-satellite services play a major role in activities such as:

– identifying areas at risk;

– forecasting weather and predicting climate change;

– detecting and tracking earthquakes, tsunamis, hurricanes, forest fires, oil leaks, etc.;

– providing alerts/warning information of such disasters;

– assessing the damage caused by such disasters;

– providing information for planning relief operations; and

– monitoring recovery from a disaster.

These services provide useful if not essential data for maintaining and improving the accuracy of weather forecasts, monitoring and predicting climate change, and furnishing information on natural resources. The frequencies used by these services and their associated applications are summarized in Table 1 of Recommendation ITU-R RS.1859 .

On-the-ground, at-the-spot (in situ), at-the-time measurements or observations are usually more precise and more accurate than similar observations made from space. These kinds of observations are known as "ground truth" and are used to calibrate space-borne instrumentation. However, when in situ instrumentation or the supporting infrastructure needed to use such instrumentation is not in place or has been disabled by the disaster, or the ground measurements are not accurate enough, space-borne observations can provide useful information for alleviating the effects of disasters. Space-borne observations are particularly useful in vast areas with low population densities, and when the technical infrastructure is vulnerable or not well developed.

(2) ITU-R activities

Recommendation ITU-R RS.1859 has been revised to add examples of how space-borne sensors can help identify areas at risk by using synthetic aperture radar (SAR)-generated digital elevation models to locate low areas subject to flooding, or by using SAR-generated bathymetry to identify ocean bottom structure that might worsen an incoming tsunami or storm surge. It also demonstrates how satellite-based remote sensors have proven useful in providing an overall assessment of drought conditions or have identified nearby, previously unrecognized areas having much better-than-average crops. Such information enabled quick yet inexpensive relief to be provided, since transportation time and costs were minimized (i.e. using nearby trucks instead of distant airplanes). After a major earthquake, the sooner an accurate damage estimate is made, the sooner the appropriate rescue assets can be mobilized. Interferometric SAR (InSAR) observations pinpoint the location of earthquake epicentres far more accurately than remote seismographs, thus enabling more precise damage estimates on which to base relief efforts. Recent launches of fleets of SAR-equipped satellites (COSMO-SkyMed (ASI), TDX and TSX (DLR), the Sentinel–1 series (ESA), and the upcoming RADARSAT constellation (CSA)) have made these assessments more readily available than in the past. Precipitation radars flown on NASA's Global Precipitation Mission provide 3-dimensional images of the rainfall from severe storms. The mission includes passive instruments which provide complimentary storm information extending beyond the swath of the radar.

Table 3A indicates for which type of disaster a particular technology may provide useful data.

(3) Obtaining remote-sensing data

To gain the maximum benefit from remote-sensing data, a local emergency management agency is needed to direct the appropriate information to people in the field who need it. UN-SPIDER is focused on helping nations develop the capacity to manage disasters. While UN-SPIDER helps organize relief organizations and train their personnel, other organizations are more data-oriented.

The WMO Observing Systems Capability Analysis and Review Tool includes a table showing all known past, current and future satellites for meteorological and Earth observation purposes. The table can be used to identify additional sources of data.

Another source of analysed remote-sensing data is UNOSAT , a United Nations programme created to provide the international community and developing nations with enhanced access to satellite imagery and GIS services.

Table 3A: Satellite-based technologies for managing natural disasters

A1.3.9 Monitor and accurately predict the path of cyclones (India) [53]

(1) Background

India has adopted a "Zero Casualty" policy to the management of disasters like cyclones, and its federal and state governments are now better prepared in terms of early-warning systems, evacuation plans, rescue and rehabilitation. Disaster drills help prepare for disasters, but the real test comes only when disaster actually strikes, in all its fervour and intensity. Recently, in May 2019, an extremely severe cyclone, Fani, struck Odisha state, on India's eastern coast. It was almost as severe as the "super cyclone" that hit the same state in 1999, killing more than 10 000 people. In the last two decades, India has prepared well to deal with disasters, including cyclones. As a result, Fani caused only 64 fatalities, despite its intensity. The United Nations Office for Disaster Risk Reduction praised the accuracy of the India Meteorological Department's early warnings, which helped the authorities in Odisha evacuate people and minimize the number of deaths.

(2) Cyclones/hurricanes/typhoons

Cyclones, hurricanes and typhoons are types of storms caused by atmospheric disturbances, wherein the air rotates cyclically around a low-pressure centre called the "eye". In the northern hemisphere, winds rotate counter-clockwise, and in the southern hemisphere, clockwise. Cyclones of variable intensity are born almost every year in the seas off India, during the months of June and July. Fani occurred in May, which is rare.

Cyclonic disturbances are classified depending on the wind speed around the centre. Satellite imagery of clouds and other meteorological features is used to estimate the intensity and wind speed of these intense systems. Satellite cloud configurations, expressed as "T" numbers, have a unique relationship with the wind field of a cyclonic disturbance. Table 4A below shows the categories of cyclones. The strong winds, heavy rains and large storm surges associated with tropical cyclones are the factors that eventually lead to loss of life and property.

Table 4A: Categories of cyclonic disturbances

(3) Early-warning models adopted by the Indian Meteorological Department

The India Meteorological Department translates observational data into numerical weather prediction models. The information is collated and analysed with that of other countries. The Department refers to 10 different numerical models every day. These models ingest the current observations and are applied in different physical principles and mathematical equations. With the help of high-powered computing systems, experts solve and analyse these equations to obtain actual observations. They then issue a prediction for different days. Forecasters go through all the models developed every day to find out whether any low-pressure system is developing anywhere offshore. Based on the observations, scientists discuss the models and arrive at a consensus and then decide to issue warnings and predictions. Warnings have the following components: warning generation; warning product presentation; warning dissemination; coordination with emergency response units; post-event review; pre-season exercise; and public education and outreach.

(4) Four-stage warnings for states

Warnings are issued to states in a cyclone's path in four stages.

The first-stage warning, the Pre-Cyclone Watch, is issued 72 hours in advance. It warns that a cyclonic disturbance is developing in the Indian Ocean/seas.

The second-stage warning, the Cyclone Alert, is issued at least 48 hours in advance of the expected commencement of adverse weather over the coastal area. It contains information on the location and intensity of the storm, its likely direction and intensity, coastal districts likely to experience adverse weather and advice to fishermen, general public, the media and disaster-management agencies. It is issued by the Area Cyclone Warning Centres (ACWCs), Cyclone Warning Centres (CWCs) and Cyclone Warning Divisions (CWDs) concerned.

The third-stage warning, the Cyclone Warning, is issued at least 24 hours in advance of the expected commencement of adverse weather over the coastal area. The point of landfall is forecast at this stage. Third-stage warnings are issued by the ACWCs, CWCs and CWDs at three-hour intervals, giving the cyclone's latest position and intensity, the likely point and time of landfall, associated heavy rainfall, strong wind and storm surge, along with information on potential impact and advice to the general public, the media, fishermen and disaster managers.

The fourth-stage warning, the Post-landfall Outlook, is issued by the centres at least 12 hours in advance of the expected time of landfall. It gives the cyclone's likely direction after landfall and indicates the adverse weather likely to be experienced in the interior.

Different colour codes are used to denote the stages of cyclone warning bulletins. Cyclone alerts are yellow, cyclone warnings are orange and post-landfall outlooks are red.

(5) ICTs used to issue early warnings in India

The following ICTs are used to send early-warning information: mobile phones, VSATs, satellite phones (Inmarsat), interactive voice response systems, LAN and virtual private networks, radio, TV, web media, loudspeakers and the national knowledge network.

(6) Cyclone Fani

Cyclone Fani, a rare summer cyclone in the Bay of Bengal, hit eastern India on 3 May 2019. It was one of the strongest cyclones to reach India in the last 20 years. Fani was an Extremely Severe Cyclonic category storm. It crossed the temple town of Puri in Odisha state (see Figure 26A) at a speed of 175 to 185 km/h, gusting to 205 km/h, resulting in widespread loss of property. The fact that loss of human lives and livestock was significantly reduced can be credited to a number of things: the effective early-warning system; the availability of adequate infrastructure; the timely evacuation of millions of people; better coordination between federal and state governments; the deployment of national disaster relief forces; India's Zero Casualty approach; and the Meteorological Department's improved model for predicting cyclone paths and landfall accurately and with minimum errors.

Figure 26A: Cyclone Fani

(a) Path of Cyclone Fani

(b) Winds along the path

(7) Steps taken to reduce loss of lives during Cyclone Fani

As mentioned above, the Government's Zero Casualty approach to natural disasters and the improved accuracy of the India Meteorological Department's early-warning system helped reduce the number of deaths during Cyclone Fani.

A record 1.2 million people (equal to the population of Mauritius) were evacuated in less than 48 hours, and almost 7 000 kitchens, providing food for 9 000 shelters, were made functional overnight. This mammoth exercise involved more than 45 000 volunteers. Thanks to this timely action, Fani resulted in about 60 fatalities.

(8) Comparison with other cyclones/hurricanes

The statistics are striking when compared to the impact of big weather events around the world. When Hurricane Maria hit Puerto Rico in 2017 with wind speeds of 175 miles per hour, it caused a death toll of 2 975. The same year, Hurricane Harvey struck Texas with winds of 130 mph, causing devastating flooding. Texas reported USD 125 billion in damages and at least 68 direct storm-related deaths. Cyclone Idai hit Mozambique in March 2019; after it ripped through Madagascar, Malawi and Zimbabwe, more than 1 000 people were feared dead.

Thus, Odisha's ability to put such an effective disaster-management plan in place and save thousands of lives is a template that the world can learn from.

(9) Key takeaways from the Fani response

Build relief infrastructure and establish a clear command-and-control structure

Until 1999, when it was hit by a super cyclone, Odisha did not have a well-laid-out plan for disaster management. Two months after the cyclone hit, the Odisha state Disaster Management Authority was set up and plans put in place. Around 900 cyclone shelters were built in vulnerable pockets of the state, with systems in place for the evacuation of hundreds of thousands of people.

There is a clear command-and-control structure for disaster relief and there are clear protocols in place for carrying out relief operations. These were successfully used in the response to Cyclone Phailin in 2013 (a storm five times the size of Hurricane Katrina), Cyclone Hudhud in 2014 and Cyclone Fani in 2019.

Accuracy of early-warning systems

The India Meteorological Department has built an effective service able accurately to predict when a cyclone will form in the Bay of Bengal and when it will make landfall along India's coastline. This early-warning system promotes disaster readiness and minimizes loss of lives. It is then crucial that people follow the protocols in place when the warnings come in.

Clear communication plan

Roughly 6.5 million text messages were sent to locals and farmers in clear language before Cyclone Fani hit, alerting those potentially affected. People were repeatedly advised over all media not to panic and given clear "do and don'ts". This helped in the record evacuation of 1.2 million people to safe buildings.

Effective coordination of groups

Preparations to fight the onslaught of Fani involved a number of government agencies, local community groups and volunteers working together. The government's disaster-response forces were pre-positioned in vulnerable locations and food packets were made ready for air force helicopters to drop to people. Senior state officials and police officers were sent to the districts affected to coordinate the efforts of various agencies.

A1.3.10 Alert and warning systems (United States) [54]

(1) Introduction

Mitigation is the effort to reduce loss of life and property by lessening the impact of disasters. [55] Timely and effective alert and warning systems strengthen mitigation and community resilience by informing citizens of risks they may face and recommended actions to save lives and protect property. Development of better alert and warning capabilities helps to mitigate hazards and lessen the impact of disasters.

Proper authorities, policy and governance are critical foundational elements for the development of an alert and warning system, especially to prioritize personnel and resource justifications. The United States established the IPAWS as a unique, multi-hazard, multi-user alert and warning infrastructure that the US Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA) makes available for use by its constituents – federal, state, local, tribal and territorial entities – across the country. The IPAWS uses technology and information standards to join multiple private sector communication technology infrastructures, providing the ability to deliver a single emergency message simultaneously to multiple public dissemination pathways (e.g. radio, TV, mobile devices and Internet-connected systems, websites and applications). Authorized public Alerting Authorities (AAs) draft tailored messages to send alerts and warnings to citizens, residents and visitors in their jurisdiction. Using the IPAWS helps the constituent AAs to communicate information about an emergency situation to the greatest number of people in the shortest amount of time by leveraging local private sector ICTs to disseminate alerts and warnings. Distributing the same message across multiple sources increases the likelihood that people will receive it and will take timely action consistent with the threats or emergency situation.

FEMA's IPAWS Programme Management Office works to sustain and enhance the platform's unique abilities by continuously interfacing with industry to track and ultimately develop or interface new and emerging ICTs and thus expand the number of systems available for distribution of alerts and warnings using the same standards-based format (electronic road signs, sirens, smart kiosks, etc.). This is done by working hand-in-hand with the Federal Communications Commission (FCC), the United States regulatory body, and private industry partners. To date, this alliance has enabled the IPAWS to help over 1 300 AAs send emergency messages to the public using radio, television and cell phones in the United States.

(2) The IPAWS architecture

The IPAWS architecture was and is designed to support interoperability with any alert and warning system in the nation that employs the same standards. IPAWS-OPEN is the infrastructure that routes authenticated alert and warning messages to the public using the radio and television systems in the Emergency Alert System, Wireless Emergency Alerts to cell phones, NOAA Weather Radios and other communication systems.

The first critical step in initiating this design solution was to use the CAP and other technical standards. When alert and warning services are made CAP-compliant and integrated with the IPAWS, the platform acts as a mediator, authenticating messages from authorized users disseminating authentic emergency information to people in a specific geographic area quickly through multiple dissemination pathways. Information from a single source about a single incident can thus reach the public via radio, television, wireless phones, Internet services and future CAP-compliant IPAWS-connected technologies. The standards-based approach enables a national alert and warning architecture to adapt to and leverage future technologies. Making use of multiple dissemination pathways for public alerts significantly increases the likelihood that the message will reach its target. In addition, disseminating a single CAP alert message simultaneously via multiple pathways reduces the time needed to send alerts and the workload on emergency managers, who would otherwise have to prepare and send multiple separate channel-specific formatted alerts. The IPAWS standards-based approach speeds the delivery of critical, life-saving information.

Use of the open CAP standard enables industry partners (i.e. Internet, carriers, software vendors, broadcast) to develop technology and/or devices that can be used by individuals with disabilities, and others with access and functional needs, to receive alerts and warnings. Thanks to standards-based interoperability, the CAP enables the transport of rich multimedia attachments and hyperlinks in all alert and warning messages. The IPAWS adopted the Emergency Data Exchange Language (EDXL) CAP, which is developed and maintained by the Organization for the Advancement of Structured Information Standards (OASIS). It continues to work with the OASIS Standards Committee to adapt changes to the CAP standard specifications for IPAWS-OPEN. The current system utilizes the CAP v1.2 Standard and the CAP v1.2 IPAWS USA Profile v1.0. The IPAWS does not provide an alert origination tool; instead, it works with more than 25 different alert origination tool vendors to ensure that their products are compliant with the CAP v1.2 Standard and United States profile specification. Constituent AAs can find the tool that best fits local operations. The IPAWS engages and provides training to AAs and tool vendors, and encourages them to adopt the system for their alert and warning needs.

Together with the Alliance for Telecommunications Industry Solutions (ATIS), a United States-based technical and operational standards and solutions development organization for the ICT industry, the IPWAS developed and adopted standards used for wireless emergency alerts in the United States. ATIS addresses common, critical priorities and shares resources, efforts and costs to develop large-scale, interoperable solutions. It is accredited by the American National Standards Institute. The IPAWS actively participates in ATIS meetings with cellular service providers and partners to continuously update wireless emergency alert capabilities.

The IPAWS liaises and collaborates with relevant professional associations, including the National Association of Broadcasters, the NCTA Internet & Television Association (formerly the National Cable & Telecommunications Association), the National Emergency Management Association and the International Association of Emergency Managers. In addition to working with standards institutes and various associations, the IPAWS, in coordination with FEMA headquarters, actively engages with the FCC and Congress to update laws and regulations and thus improve alert and warning capabilities. It worked with committees of the National Research Council and The National Academies Press to develop published workshop reports on the Public Response to Alerts and Warnings on Mobile Devices [56] and Geotargeted Alerts and Warnings [57] .

Thanks to its regular use and development of standards, and participation in associations, the IPWAS participates proactively in operational tests, training, exercises and evaluations of new and emerging technologies. These activities enable progress toward the integration of additional and new technologies into the national alert and warning interoperability backbone, and encourage industry and other private sector innovators to meet the mitigation risk reduction and risk management needs of the emergency management community at large. The IPAWS architecture is shown in Figure 27A.

Figure 27A: IPAWS architecture

Source: FEMA

(3) Using IPAWS capabilities

The original requirement for the IPAWS was to provide the President with a means of warning the public of impending disasters and attacks. At present, however, the national IPAWS is used daily by local emergency managers in a very wide variety of situations that threaten public safety and property. Local authorities have used it to issue emergency messages related to chemical spills, child abductions, dam failures, the availability of disaster recovery resources, earthquakes, evacuations, flash floods, gridlocked traffic, hurricanes, large-scale power outages, law enforcement operations, nuclear facility accidents, roadway closures, shelter-in-place orders, snowstorms, tornados, toxic plumes, volcano eruptions, wildfires and water contamination. Details can be obtained from the IPAWS website .

(4) Alerting Authorities

Over 1 300 constituent AAs use CAP-based alert origination tools to create alerts and warnings that are compatible with the national architecture. In the United States, depending on constituent policies, AAs can include, but are not limited to, government agencies at all levels, fire and police departments, military bases, colleges and universities, nuclear power plants and hospitals. All AAs requesting use of the IPAWS platform must independently acquire software compatible with the IPAWS CAP specifications and sign a memorandum of agreement with FEMA. Each memorandum dictates the development of effective local alert and warning practices and procedures, requires completion of FEMA IPAWS training, and stipulates monthly training to demonstrate that the AA can react and send a properly formatted alert and warning in a test environment. All emergencies are local, and each area threatened by a disaster or emergency is unique, which is why AAs have the freedom and autonomy to determine message content and when to send alerts and warnings.

(5) Success stories

– Wildfires: During the Southern California wildfires of 2017, the Governor's Office of Emergency Services warned seven counties to stay alert and listen to authorities during periods of strong winds. Winds did in fact spread fires, at times over more than one acre per second. Wildfires burned over 307 900 acres and forced the evacuation of over 230 000 people, but only one civilian death was recorded, thanks in part to advance notification. In 2018, many wireless and Emergency Alert System alerts were sent during a wildfire that burned in four counties for 54 days. Media reports indicate that many people were evacuated on time as the public seemed very receptive to the alerts.

– Bomb threat: New York City Emergency Management sent a wireless emergency alert in the form of an electronic wanted poster to identify the suspect in connection with bombings in Manhattan and New Jersey in 2016; the suspect was captured within hours. This was the first widespread effort to transform the citizens of a major American city into a vigilant eye for authorities. "This is a tool we will use again in the future… This is a modern approach that really engaged a whole community," said Mayor Bill de Blasio. [58]

– Tornado alert: In 2016, the groom at a wedding reception in Ohio received a tornado alert on his phone. The phones of family members in attendance from New York, New Jersey, South Carolina and even Canada immediately received the same alert. Even when the guests and family members in attendance are from different geographic areas, wireless emergency alerts can reach any cell phone using a specific tower, including those in moving vehicles. [59]

– Child abduction/Amber Alert: On 31 December 2016 in Sharpsville, Pennsylvania, an armed and dangerous adult male abducted his eight-month-old daughter. An off-duty security worker in Reading, Pennsylvania, received an Amber Alert on his phone and noticed a vehicle matching the description provided in the alert. He provided 911 dispatchers with information that allowed police to find the vehicle. The child was found safe less than an hour after the Amber Alert was issued. [60]

A1.4 Drills and exercises

A1.4.1 Emergency telecommunication drills (China) [61]

This case study introduces the purpose, types and requirements of emergency telecommunication drills. It suggests further strengthening emergency telecommunication drills and experience sharing in the field of telecommunications/ICT for disaster preparedness, mitigation and response.

(1) Purpose of emergency telecommunication drills

Exercises are a great way to:

• Evaluate the preparedness programme and identify planning and procedural deficiencies: Preparedness programmes may be untested, not updated or unable to adapt to new situations. Emergency telecommunication drills can reveal shortcomings in the programme, check its adaptability to unexpected situations and gauge the need for modifications and improvements.

• Improve capabilities to respond to real events: Emergency telecommunication drills can help verify new technology application and information communication resources, assess new equipment capabilities and enhance emergency telecommunication support capability. They can provide indications of the capabilities of existing resources and identify resource gaps.

• Improve coordination between internal and external teams, organizations and entities, and boost the level of cross-regional support: Drills serve to strengthen the coordination ability of multi-department and rapid response operations, and to improve communication and coordination between emergency organizations and personnel.

• Train the emergency telecommunication team: Emergency drills help improve the team leader's ability to analyse, make decisions, organize and coordinate. They help telecommunication personnel understand onsite roles and responsibilities. They can also help heighten awareness and understanding of hazards and their potential impact, reduce panic and promote cooperation with the government and its departments, in order to improve the overall social emergency response capacity.

Figure 28A: Emergency telecommunication drill

(2) Types of emergency telecommunication drill

Different types of drill can be used to evaluate programme plans, procedures and capabilities.

• Emergency telecommunication drills that focus on organization include tabletop exercises and actual-combat drills. In tabletop exercises, team members use maps, sand tables, flowcharts, computer simulations, video conferencing and other means to discuss their roles and responses during an emergency situation. Such exercises are usually conducted in rooms. In actual-combat drills, the participants use the emergency equipment and materials available to simulate pre-set emergency scenarios and subsequent development scenarios through actual decision-making, action and operations. Such drills are usually conducted in specific locations.

• Emergency telecommunication drills that focus on content include single and comprehensive drills. A single drill involves only one specific emergency response function in the emergency plan or a series of emergency response functions in the onsite plan. It focuses on specific units and functions. Comprehensive drills involve multiple or all emergency response functions in contingency plans. They emphasize testing of various links and functions, especially the emergency mechanism and joint response capability of different departments.

• Emergency telecommunication drills that focus on purpose and function include test drills, demonstration drills and research drills. Test drills test emergency plan feasibility, emergency preparation, emergency mechanism coordination and the ability of relevant personnel to take their places. Demonstration drills are a kind of performance drill carried out in strict accordance with the emergency plan to demonstrate emergency ability or instruct observers. Research drills are organized to study and solve the key difficulties of emergency plan activation and to test new schemes, technologies and equipment.

• Emergency communication drills that focus on notification include notification and script-free drills. Notification drills follow a script and check the emergency communication support according to the plan of action. In double-blind emergency telecommunication drills or flight inspections without script or notification, the drill time and place are not announced in advance. The emergency telecommunication equipment and personnel are temporarily deployed to the drill site, where the equipment is assembled; both are then dispatched to an actual-combat simulation drill in a certain area.

Different types of drill can be combined: table-top drill, integrated table-top drill, demonstration of single drill, demonstration of integrated drill, and so on.

The general emergency telecommunication drill is a comprehensive drill. The drill scenario might be as follows: a simulated earthquake causes business disruptions; a group organized via a remote emergency rescue and disaster relief drill in neighbouring provinces comprises seven teams; 24 emergency vehicles, 24 sets of equipment and 78 drill personnel are sent in; topics covered in the drill include coverage of the UAV base station, Wi-Fi coverage of Ku and Ka portable stations, a C network base station with satellite circuit, optical fibre fusion, emergency power supply and other business subjects.

Figure 29A: Emergency telecommunication drill

A1.4.2 Exercise to simulate the implementation of the civil security plan for telecommunications (Algeria) [62]

In order to strengthen disaster preparedness for emergency telecommunication resources, the Ministry of Post and Telecommunications of Algeria, in cooperation with the Algerian Space Agency, the General Directorate for Civil Protection and the telecommunication operators organized a partial civil security (ORSEC) simulation exercise for the telecommunication module on 24 October 2020 in the wilaya of Boumerdes located 45 kilometres to the north-east of the nation's capital city.

(1) Legal framework

Operators who hold licenses for setting up and operating public telecommunication networks (fixed and mobile) have certain obligations under their licensing terms. In particular there is an article relating to emergency calls:

– to elaborate, in concert with the officials in charge of disaster relief and the local authorities, plans and preparations for the provision and rapid restoration of a minimum level of emergency telecommunications, and to implement them at their own initiative or upon a request from the competent authorities;

– to reserve equipment that is mobile, transportable and suitable for response work and participate in exercises organized by the responsible public bodies.

(2) Objective of the simulation exercise

The principal objective of this simulation exercise was to test the continuity of operations of telecommunication services, particularly with regard to the command structure and the population, and to permit Civil Protection to evaluate the effectiveness of the emergency measures put in place on the operational level.

Accordingly, it aimed to first, strengthen coordination between the different operators in the telecommunication sector and to ascertain their readiness and effectiveness in a disaster situation; and second, employ the resources of Algeria's ALCOMSAT-1 satellite in cooperation with the Algerian Space Agency (ASAL) and Algérie Télécom Satellite (ATS). ALCOMSAT-1 was launched in December 2017 and is the country's first telecommunication satellite.

(3) Scenario of the simulation exercise

The simulation manoeuvres were based on "an earthquake of magnitude 6.8 on the Richter scale, with the epicentre located 8 km to the north of the town of Boumerdes, leading to loss of life and major damage to urban areas, infrastructure and residences. The zone most heavily affected is that of the communes of Boumerdes and Zemmouri, with total disruption of the telecommunication networks."

For the links and telecommunications module, the scenario had two aspects:

– Operational aspect: telecommunication links were provided by ASAL with the installation of mobile and fixed VSAT stations to enable VoIP, data and videoconference transmission between the various command sites managed by Civil Protection via ALCOMSAT-1, complementing the voice-only VHF relays and terminals;

– Civil aspect: (Deployment exercise) involving telecommunication operators for fixed and mobile telephony so as to maintain service continuity in the affected zone and provide telecommunication services to the population.

(4) Human and material resources

This large-scale exercise involved some 100 participants from such telecommunication players as ASAL, ATS, the Agence Nationale des Fréquences (ANF), Algérie Télécom (AT), Algérie Télécom Mobile (ATM Mobilis), Wataniya Télécom Algérie (WTA-OOREDOO) and Orascom Télécom Algérie (OTA-Djezzy), as well as Civil Protection members at various levels.

With regard to the telecommunication resources deployed for the simulation exercise, Civil Protection and ASAL, as well as the telecommunication operators, made available some major technical equipment, including:

– Civil Protection: VHF stations, relays and terminals;

– ASAL: six VSAT station, including two mobile (van and 4x4 vehicle), one portable and three fixed;

– AT: two eNodeB trailer-mounted 4G stations with built-in generator sets, one mini eNodeB 4G station, two complete DRSS links, and five 25 kVA generator sets;

– ATM: one trailer-mounted 2G/3G/4G-compatible station with built-in generator set and VSAT antenna;

– OTA: one trailer-mounted 2G/3G-compatible station with an Outdoor generator set;

– WTA: one mobile lorry-mounted 2G/3G-compatible station with built-in generator set;

– ATS: two VSAT stations (for Mobilis, the VSAT station is already integrated), six satellite modems and two 1.8-metre antennas;

– ANF: two spectrum monitoring units.

(5) Conduct of the simulation

The simulation exercise took place on the five following sites:

• Sites 1 and 2: two zone command posts (PCZ), located in the affected zones;

• Site 3: an operational command post (PCO) for representatives of the executive bodies under the authority of the Civil Protection for coordinating the rescue efforts;

• Site 4: a fixed command post (PCF) at the Wilaya headquarters for the officers in charge, under the authority of the wali or a representative;

• Site 5: the headquarters for the General Directorate for Civil Protection, simulating the interministerial crisis cell.

Operational portion

At the different sites involved ASAL deployed fixed VSAT stations, a mobile station (van), a VSAT station and a 4x4 vehicle equipped with a VSAT link for transmitting imagery filmed by a camera mounted on a Civil Protection helicopter and providing the different mobile-mode transmission services to remote sites. Voice and videoconference transmission between those sites was tested successfully, as was the reception of aerial images and videos of the affected areas transmitted by the Civil Protection helicopter. Transmission was done via ALCOMSAT-1. In addition, all of the sites were interconnected by the Civil Protection VHF network for the provision of voice transmission.

Civil portion

Coverage of the affected areas was provided by the three mobile telephony operators and by the incumbent fixed telephony operator AT.

The topology of the networks deployed on the day of the simulation was organized around the following points:

• AT deployed two trailer-mounted 4G stations, one mini 4G station at the PCO, with the installation of 4G CPE, one Outdoor CPE unit and videoconference equipment at the five sites. Tests for voice, data and video were successful and transmission was provided by the 800 Mbit/s DRSS links;

• the mobile operators deployed three trailer-mounted stations in the affected area to provide voice coverage for the population with a 2 Mbit/s VSAT satellite link by ATS for each operator;

• ANF put up two spectrum analysers to monitor and verify the quality of the signal and frequencies used.

Figure 30A: Emergency telecommunication drill

(6) Conclusion

Thanks to the different tests performed on the day of the simulation, it was possible to obtain information on the resources available from each operator and establish direct contact with the different players. In the same framework, future simulation days organized annually across the entire country should lead to improvements at the organizational and procedural level, while preserving the dynamic interaction and coordination between the players as regards the civil security plan and providing solutions for the different technical and organizational problems that simulation operations invariably bring to light.

The tests also contributed to informing the vision of Algeria's Ministerial Department with regard to the preparation and elaboration of a national emergency telecommunication plan, in accordance with Target 3.5 defined in the strategic plan for the period 2020-2023 in Resolution 71 (Rev. Dubai, 2018) of the Plenipotentiary Conference of the International Telecommunication Union: "By 2023, all countries should have a national emergency telecommunication plan as part of their national and local disaster risk reduction strategies".

These national plans will make it possible to bring together all of the players so as to examine the disaster-management cycle, define the ICT capabilities needed to deal with emergency and elaborate a governance framework allocating roles and responsibilities.

A1.5 Others

A1.5.1 Global disaster statistics (Japan) [63]

The Global Centre for Disaster Statistics (GCDS, see Figure 31A for a detailed scheme) was established in partnership with the International Research Institute for Disaster Science (IRIDeS) at Tohoku University, Fujitsu, and other organizations with a view to implementing the Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction 2015-2030 and achieving the Sustainable Development Goals. The following outputs are expected:

i) national capacities to produce disaster statistics are strengthened;

ii) a global information platform is developed for the analysis of disaster statistics; and

iii) independent scientific analyses are conducted of progress towards achievement of the Sendai Framework global targets and the Sustainable Development Goals.

In terms of academic contributions, the GCDS will publish a special issue of the Journal of Disaster Research on the development of disaster statistics.

Figure 31A: Detailed scheme of the GCDS

A pilot phase started in 2017, with UNDP and IRIDeS working with Cambodia, Indonesia, the Maldives, Myanmar, Nepal, the Philippines and Sri Lanka, which had been selected by the UNDP Asia-Pacific Hub, to increase their capacities in disaster statistics and convening regular meetings to share experiences. In terms of ICT, Fujitsu has developed a global database to store disaster loss and damage data. The GCDS has started to collect and store data from the pilot country governments. Table 5A shows the progress made in that respect.

Table 5A: Data collection progress

Indonesia

The API* developed by the BNPB** is stored in the database (22 442 data).

Myanmar

The GCDS has commenced proceedings to collect data to store in the database.

Philippines

The GCDS has commenced proceedings to collect data to store in the database.

Cambodia

The GCDS has commenced proceedings to collect data to store in the database.

Sri Lanka

The GCDS has commenced proceedings to collect data to store in the database.

Nepal (Republic of)

The GCDS plans to commence proceedings in this fiscal year to collect data to store in the database.

Maldives

The GCDS plans to commence proceedings in this fiscal year to collect data to store in the database.

*API: Application Programming Interface

**BNPB: National Agency for Disaster Management in Indonesia

Consultations with UNDP regional hubs have resulted in the countries listed in Table 6A being nominated as priority countries for GCDS implementation.

Table 6A: Priority countries for GCDS implementation

Africa

Uganda, Mozambique, Rwanda, Niger, Angola

Arab States

Djibouti, Egypt, Iraq, Lebanon, State of Palestine under Resolution 99 (Rev. Dubai, 2018), Somalia, Sudan, Tunisia

Central Asia

Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan, Georgia, Armenia

Latin America and the Caribbean

Peru, Paraguay, Chile, Cuba, Ecuador, Mexico, Nicaragua, Dominican Republic

The GCDS is now planning to take advantage of Fujitsu's Cloud Service K5. Needless to say, ICT is vital to connect numerous stakeholders. The GCDS mission will be achieved all the more effectively and efficiently in that it goes beyond various resource restrictions.

A1.5.2 Pre-positioned emergency telecommunication systems (Japan) [64]

When disaster strikes, damaged telecommunication equipment may lead to telecommunication blackouts or telecommunication traffic may become congested. When this happens, emergency telecommunication systems prepared in advance can rapidly restore important telecommunication services, e.g. for the police, fire department, local government and hospitals. They can also send safety confirmation messages to people in disaster areas. Using the systems in normal times, i.e. not in a disaster, can avoid problems such as system unavailability. In addition, emergency telecommunication systems can provide communication services in rural areas where service would otherwise be insufficient.

The Japanese Government Cabinet Office's Strategic Innovation Programme plans to implement research results society-wide. One of its projects was a field trial of an MDRU initially designed as a disaster communication tool in the Republic of Nepal in February 2019.

The Republic of Nepal is a rugged country that is over 60 per cent hills and mountains. Many schools in remote villages in the hills and mountains have few resources and learning materials. Schools are closed for long periods during the monsoon and winter seasons because teachers and students cannot reach them. Remote education is one way to overcome the geographical conditions in Nepal, serve areas that are hard to access and encourage the participation of students and other stakeholders in education.

With the assistance of Japan, Educating Nepal, a Nepalese NGO, conducted a field trial in which an MDRU was used to provide remote education in the rural community of Jholunge, Indrawati Rural Municipality, in the hilly region of Sindhupalchowk District, roughly 85 km from Kathmandu.

The MDRU was used to connect the elementary school and two nearby villages, as shown in Figure 32A. The school was the main venue, while the two other locations were remote venue A and remote venue B. Figure 33A shows the geographical conditions of the trial.

Figure 32A: Testing remote education in the Republic of Nepal

Figure 33A: Geographical conditions of Jholunge village

During the trial, remote teaching and learning were demonstrated to elementary school pupils, and remote consulting and agricultural support were tested for adults, especially farmers.

The results of the trial were evaluated by means of a questionnaire and interviews of key participants and observers. They show that the MDRU was very effective for remote education at a general level. Adult remote learning received the highest scores, followed by overall self-learning and then student remote learning. The MDRU user experience in terms of effectiveness, relevance and innovation received higher scores, while MDRU convenience and suitability for daily use received lower scores. The MDRU is therefore an effective tool for remote education that should be installed in various places to provide effective education through distance or e-learning.

The results also showed that it can be useful to redesign the dedicated user application or interface for remote learning, since the current application was fully tailored for disaster communication and was therefore at one point a little inconvenient to use for remote education. Apart from that one niggle, the MDRU obtained commendable test scores for its effective use in remote education.

Disaster-management solutions such as emergency telecommunication systems can be used for remote education in rural areas without enough telecommunication infrastructure in ordinary times. This has the added advantage of ensuring that children and farmers will know how to use the emergency telecommunication system when disaster strikes, as they will have been "trained" in its use in ordinary times.

A1.5.3 Fighting the Ebola virus disease (Democratic Republic of the Congo) [65]

Telecommunications are being used in the Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC) to fight an outbreak of Ebola virus disease in the province of North Kivu in the east of the country and a threatened outbreak in the neighbouring countries of Rwanda and Uganda. The Democratic Republic of the Congo is affected by different kinds of disaster, the most common being those related to illnesses such as cholera and Ebola.

The main participants in the fight against Ebola are:

– the Office of the President of the Republic, through the anti-Ebola technical committee;

– the Ministry of the Interior and Security, through the DRC National Police, which provide security at sites and centres where patients are treated and cared for;

– the Ministry of National Defence, through the DRC Armed Forces, which are pursuing the armed groups that operate in the eastern part of the country and regularly attack medical and other health-care personnel, hospitals and members of the public;

– the Ministry of Health;

– the Ministries of Humanitarian Affairs and of Social Affairs;

– the Ministry of Posts and Telecommunications, through the regulatory authority;

– NGOs active in the field of humanitarian and health services;

– civil society, for public education and outreach campaigns;

– religious communities, in particular the Catholic Church (assistance is provided by the Vatican).

Given that armed groups are operating in the area where the Ebola epidemic has taken root, in the east of the Democratic Republic of the Congo, and that the epidemic has reached alarming proportions, with more than 2 000 cases, the Government has launched an epidemic response strategy, one of the pillars of which is telecommunications. Thanks to telecommunications, people in epidemic-affected areas can inform friends and relatives, the public authorities and humanitarian associations about the onset of disaster, the public authorities can issue alerts and plan relief operations, and rescue teams can coordinate their operations from the initial alert to the intervention process.

The telecommunication sector of the Democratic Republic of the Congo, which was opened to competition under the framework law of 16 October 2002, currently comprises the following:

– four mobile telephone operators (Vodacom Congo S.A, Airtel Congo S.A, Orange and Africell);

– one wired fixed telephone operator (the public/incumbent operator);

– one wireless fixed telephone operator (Standard Telecoms);

– about 20 Internet service providers;

– over 150 radio stations and about 60 television channels across the country, in urban and rural areas;

– over 10 national digital terrestrial TV channels;

– private telecommunication networks (operated by private organizations and NGOs).

Other forms of communication being used in the fight against Ebola include visual media such as banners, streamers, posters and T-shirts displaying public health advice.

In short, there are two types of telecommunication network being used in the fight against Ebola:

– public networks: mobile telephone networks, fixed telephone networks, radio and television broadcasting networks and Internet access networks;

– private networks: private companies, NGOs, etc.

These various telecommunication networks enable and facilitate:

– early warnings for prevention or intervention;

– the circulation, exchange and sharing of information and data among the different players involved;

– prompt decision-making so as to reduce the threat of the disease;

– planning and coordination of relief operations on the ground.

Are there specific regulations governing the use of telecommunications in the event of disasters in the Democratic Republic of the Congo?

While the answer to that question is "No", the Government has established provisions in the licensing agreements for telephone operators requiring them inter alia to help relief teams use their networks free of charge in their operations. To that effect, holders of licences for a public telecommunication service are required to organize free-of-charge emergency call services, in particular for the national police and relief services in the operating area of the service licensed.

In addition, the general regulations on telecommunications grant favourable terms for the possession, movement and use of satellite terminals such as Thuraya, Iridium and so on by NGOs. By virtue of agreements signed with the Government, NGOs are also exempt from any and all taxes and levies on telecommunication equipment and materials that they have and use for the fulfilment of their mission. All these various measures serve to increase and reinforce the relief capabilities of NGOs.

The mobilization of significant telecommunication resources has led to an improvement in the management of the Ebola epidemic in recent months, as confirmed by the encouraging results reported by medical sources. As control over Ebola is established, the number of positive diagnoses is decreasing and there are even cases of recovery.

A1.5.4 Disaster Maps programme (Facebook, United States) [66]

(1) Introduction

The enormous number of people using social networks such as Facebook means that extensive geospatial information is available on connectivity that is difficult to capture quickly through conventional methods. Many apps rely on location services data collected via smartphones. In the case of Facebook, people have the option to provide this information. Location data are used to provide myriad features, such as targeted alerts and prompts to check in as "safe" after a hazard event to allay the concerns of friends and family. In addition to powering product crisis response features, location data, when aggregated and anonymized, can provide insights into how populations are affected by crisis events.

Beginning in 2017, [67] Facebook began providing aggregated geospatial data sets to crisis response organizations and researchers to help fill information gaps in service delivery. These Disaster Maps utilize information about usage in areas impacted by natural hazards, producing aggregate pictures of how the population is affected by and responding to the crisis. The maps include insights into evacuations, cell network connectivity, access to electricity and long-term displacement. Since their launch, Disaster Maps have been activated for over 500 crisis events and made available to over 100 partner organizations. The connectivity maps in particular have proven to be instrumental in aiding emergency communication efforts.

(2) Case Study: Hurricane Maria

In the aftermath of Hurricane Maria in Puerto Rico in 2017, response organizations were in desperate need of information for rescue operations and aid coordination. The storm had knocked out the majority of communication services, including cellular Internet service, on the island. NetHope crews were quickly deployed and worked to restore connectivity, to enable responding organizations to coordinate rescue and aid efforts. Their challenge was how to target efforts to the areas of highest need. As shown in Figure 34A below, Disaster Maps data were used to show drops in connectivity on a daily basis by comparing the aggregate number of users connecting to Facebook before the storm and the number able to connect in the days after the hurricane. [68] The data helped NetHope identify the areas of greatest need and efficiently prioritize its relief efforts.

Figure 34A: Example connectivity map generated with Facebook Disaster Maps data by NetHope

The Disaster Maps programme was developed in a cross-functional effort by research, design, engineering, legal and policy teams to ensure that useful data are reliably provided to vetted NGOs and research organizations. The programme is ongoing and seeks to reach more people in need after a crisis, increase the data types surfaced in each Disaster Map and improve the accuracy of existing Disaster Maps data sets. Of particular note is the emphasis on ensuring that the privacy-protecting methods (such as aggregation and spatial smoothing) used in Disaster Maps are published openly. Companies in the tech sector draw on a wide range of privacy-protecting methods when considering how to share data, and these must be weighed against both technical limitations and legal requirements. These considerations require considerable effort and time. By publishing the solution that works for it, the company has dramatically reduced the barrier of entry for other entities to provide similar data sets in order to create a more complete picture for crisis response organizations.

(3) Facebook's data-sharing approach

Facebook generates and shares Disaster Maps as part of its Data for Good programme, which shares data sets externally with humanitarian response organizations while preserving user privacy. While building these efforts, the company developed key lessons and resources that can lower barriers for other companies to participate in similar crisis response data-sharing efforts.

– Facebook published the privacy protection methods it uses in Disaster Maps, which include aggregation, spatial smoothing, dropping small counts, and other techniques, as part of the proceedings of the 16th International Conference on Information Systems for Crisis Response and Management, in May 2019. [69] This open publication represents a critical contribution made in order to stimulate other private sector companies to consider providing similar data sets to crisis response organizations. Determining an acceptable privacy protection threshold in geospatial data sets is a complex undertaking, and it is Facebook's hope that by openly publishing its methods, it will lower barriers to entry for other private sector agencies to move forward with similar data-sharing efforts.

– The company launched improved displacement maps at the October 2019 NetHope Global Summit in Puerto Rico. These maps help non-profit and research partners better understand the volume of people displaced after a natural disaster and where they have been displaced.

– The company launched simplified and improved network connectivity maps in December 2019 based on feedback from existing emergency communication partners wishing to better understand where network connectivity was completely out following a natural disaster rather than simply reduced. These new network connectivity maps show where users have cellular connectivity of a 2G, 3G or 4G connection type based on the speed and latency of data being sent between the user's device and the servers hosting the mobile app.

(4) A collaborative approach

The goal of the Disaster Maps programme is to empower crisis response organizations and researchers with data that improve delivery of life-saving interventions while preserving user privacy. The programme also seeks to drive innovation in crisis response and emergency communication efforts that extends beyond the company. To date, Facebook has partnered with over 100 NGOs and research organizations through Disaster Maps, and a number of its NGO partners also work to share derivative products with broader coalitions of response agencies, including federal, state and local entities. These crisis response organizations are experienced in engaging government agencies and providing them with geospatial data. The company's programme model is to empower such partners with new data sources rather than displace their role in coordinating with governments directly. This has proven very successful and scalable. All Facebook partners complete a data license agreement in order to be granted access to Disaster Maps data.

When specific crisis response data gaps emerge, the company seeks organizations to work with closely, to guide its research and development of new or improved data sets. For example, the methodology for the improved displacement maps released in October 2019 was co-created by Facebook and the Internal Displacement Monitoring Centre (IDMC), which works on measuring numbers of internally displaced people. The company's Data for Good team continues to work with the IDMC to compare the insights derived from displacement data from recent crises in 2019, such as Cyclone Idai in India/Bangladesh and Typhoon Hagibis in Japan, and to compare displacement data with more traditional sources in order to refine and educate ongoing development efforts.

Collaboration with crisis response organizations in the emergency communication space has also led to new network connectivity maps. A specific example is the collaboration and feedback received from NetHope and its member organizations on the need to simplify the nature of coverage map generation for efficient operational decision-making. Critical questions facing these organizations included whether people had cellular connectivity, where drops in cellular connectivity had been observed in disaster-impacted areas, and how certain they could be that there had been a drop in cellular connectivity in a disaster-impacted area. To answer the first question, Facebook developed a simple coverage map showing the grid tiles that had network coverage on a given date. To address the second question, it surfaced a map that shows which grid tiles had not seen network connections on that date but had coverage during the 30-day baseline period. The company's teams addressed the third question by publishing the probability of a grid tile receiving network coverage on that date based on 30-day baseline observations.

(5) Testing and usability

All Disaster Maps undergo testing with users in order to ensure that new data sets are clear to understand and fit within the workflows of crisis response organizations. The company's Data for Good team has invested heavily in usability research with organizations across the spectrum of geospatial experience. For example, research with advanced users was a key part of refining and improving the format of data set files to enable customized analysis methods across a range of GIS applications. This research also included one-on-one interviews with novice users of Disaster Maps, to test early prototypes and determine the best means to visualize complex displacement data in vector format. Based on this feedback, the company's Data for Good team updated visualizations to allow for filtering by outbound or inbound displacement for a given location. In addition, the team improved the depth of documentation on the statistical methods used to compare pre-crisis connectivity levels with those observed in real time.

(6) Creating an enabling policy and regulatory environment for sharing information during a disaster

Facebook supports policies that protect and promote user privacy, especially during times of increased vulnerability such as following an emergency crisis. It recognizes that protecting privacy while improving the effectiveness of potentially life-saving response efforts requires concerted efforts and time by technical and programmatic teams.

The company and its partners encourage other entities from across the public and private sector to share geospatial data sets that preserve user privacy. A variety of collaborative approaches, including data governance frameworks, should be considered for scaling data-sharing efforts across private sector companies, so as to avoid overwhelming response organizations with additional data. The Data Collaboratives framework provided by GovLab has proven extremely useful in helping to ensure that decision-makers are able to be more data-driven and collaborative with the private sector.

Collectively, the emergency response community should advance policies and programmes that encourage a transparent approach to privacy protection and afford continued collaboration for improved humanitarian operations.

A1.5.5 ICTs in the fight against the COVID-19 pandemic (China) [70]

(1) Introduction

In the face of the COVID-19 pandemic, China has launched emergency communication measures to fight the pandemic from the perspectives of government and companies. First, more resources have been provided, to help telecom operators meet people's needs for more broadband Internet connectivity and telecommunication services. Second, during the pandemic, some countries have adopted measures to reduce and abolish telecommunication fees, cancel the upper limit of fixed broadband or mobile Internet access, abolish all telecommunication late payment fees, provide free calls or increase the data flow of tariff packages, so as to ensure the normal use of the telecommunication lifeline by users. The third is to provide decision-making support in the form of big-data analysis. The fourth is to develop new applications and launch a number of cloud services, which have played an important role in supporting services.

(2) Network guarantee

The Chinese Government has provided overall guidance to operators to ensure the construction of designated high-quality hospital communication networks within the shortest possible time. The operators completed the construction of telecommunication facilities at Huoshenshan, Leishenshan and shelter hospitals in Wuhan, overcoming various difficulties, and put into operation the 5G base station in Huoshenshan Hospital within 36 hours, providing full coverage of 4G/5G signals. The network deployment at Leishenshan Hospital was completed within 24 hours and can meet the concurrent telecommunication needs of 30 000 people. The wireless network coverage and optimization of Wuhan shelter hospitals was completed within 48 hours.

(3) Service guarantee

At the request of the joint prevention and control regime and relevant departments, the Chinese Government has organized operators to send tens of billions of public short messages on pandemic prevention and control, effectively supporting prevention and control efforts in various places. In areas where the situation was severe, operators offered convenient services, such as non-stop service and emergency start-up, and services enabling users to handle telecommunication issues without leaving home. Some areas connected people with the health and pandemic prevention agencies, and reduced the telephone charges for medical staff lending a hand in Hubei Province. Internet companies have been helped and encouraged to give full play to their respective advantages and provide public services such as online diagnosis and treatment, an e-commerce platform, teleworking and online education, so as to help realize "working without going to work, schooling without going to school", contributing greatly to the fight against the pandemic.

(4) Big-data analysis application

China can provide strong, accurate and comprehensive decision-making support for real-time pandemic prevention and control by using telecommunication big-data analysis. Since the outbreak, it has organized industry experts to carry out big-data analyses and established a telecom big-data analysis model for the pandemic.

The sharing and combining of big data on communication with data from health and disease control and prevention centres are important sources of support for the advance study and assessment of pandemic spread and prevention trends, contributing to dynamic prediction and early warning of the overall pandemic situation.

Telecommunication administrations of all provinces (autonomous regions and municipalities) have actively communicated with local COVID-19 prevention and control organizations, trying to understand the local needs for big data on pandemic prevention and control, organizing local operators to carry out big-data analyses, and providing detailed data support for pandemic prevention and control from the source and at grass-roots level, and for accurate government policy formulation.

Drawing on mobile user data, operators have cooperated with relevant departments on joint prevention and control, focusing on the dynamic analysis of people flows in key areas such as designated hospitals, fever clinics and points of assembly, and providing big-data analysis support services for population flows related to pandemic prevention and control. The results of big-data analyses related to pneumonia research released by Internet companies independently have also provided a useful reference for relevant government agencies in their decision making.

(5) Development of new applications and services

To fight the pandemic and help people resume work, production and school, Chinese operators have launched a number of cloud services that have played an important support role. In terms of cloud command, operators are free to launch "cloud conference" services for hundreds of parties online, for an unlimited number of times and for extended periods, thereby meeting the needs of governments at all levels, medical institutions and other agencies fighting COVID-19 in terms of command, dispatch and videoconferencing.

To facilitate cloud health care, the medical cloud system has been successfully applied in many areas during the pandemic. For example, China Mobile helped the General Hospital of the People's Liberation Army in Beijing and the Huoshenshan Hospital in Wuhan make the first critical remote diagnosis: medical experts at the General Hospital were kept on alert with the "5G telemedicine system" 24 hours a day. By using two medical trolleys in the infection division, Huoshenshan Hospital achieved interconnection and interoperability with the General Hospital wards using cloud video equipment and thus enjoyed real-time, professional and efficient diagnosis and treatment of difficult and severe cases at a distance of 1 200 kilometres, fully demonstrating the benefits of smart medicine. The successful application of the medical cloud system will facilitate the improvement of smart medicine and its widespread use in China.

To help people return to work and production, the information and communication industry has made full use of its technological advantages, fully promoted "cloud" services and helped enterprises to overcome difficulties, so as to ensure that both pandemic prevention and work can be carried out without delay. During the pandemic, many teleworking software and cloud services (e.g. collaborative offices, videoconferencing, document collaboration and equipment management) were launched, providing strong support enabling enterprises to quickly resume their work and production. In order to fully cooperate with COVID-19 prevention and control agencies and speed up the resumption of work and production, the Ministry of Industry and Information Technology made rapid arrangements for the China Academy of Information and Communications Technology and three operators, namely, China Telecom, China Mobile and China Unicom, to jointly launch the Telecommunication Big Data Travel Card, which uses communication big-data technology. Under strict provisions for the protection of personal information, domestic mobile phone users can check information on places they have visited (including overseas countries or regions) in the past 14 days for free, through SMS, mobile apps, the WeChat miniprogram, webpages and others. At the same time, the Telecommunication Travel Card app, which uses internationally accepted Bluetooth technology, alerts close contacts of confirmed COVID-19 patients, providing strong support for pandemic prevention and control.

In order to help students return to school, the Ministry of Industry and Information Technology, together with the Ministry of Education, made arrangements to network school operations and thus support "schooling without going to school" during the pandemic prevention and control period. Services across the country covered nearly 180 million primary and middle school students learning at home. The Ministry of Education has launched the national primary and secondary school network cloud platform. Baidu, Alibaba, China Mobile, China Unicom, China Telecom, Network Host and Huawei have provided technical support and coordinated the deployment of 7 000 servers with a bandwidth of 90 TB, enough to support 5 000 students going online at the same time, ensuring a smooth online learning experience.

A1.5.6 COVID-19 response (United States) [71]

(1) Introduction

To support COVID-19 response efforts, the United States Congress made available funds from the Coronavirus Aid, Relief, and Economic Security (CARES) Act for the COVID-19 Telehealth programme and the Education Stabilization Fund, to help students learn from home during the pandemic. The CARES Act, passed by Congress in March 2020, provides over USD 2 trillion in economic assistance to American workers, families and small businesses, to preserve jobs and help the economy during the COVID-19 emergency. The independent and collaborative efforts undertaken by the Federal Communications Commission (FCC) to maintain communications, provide important information to the public and support public health providers are summarized below.

(2) FCC actions in response to the COVID-19 pandemic in the United States

The COVID-19 pandemic has significantly increased voice and Internet traffic globally as lives and economies around the world move online. Teleworking, distance learning, online commerce and e-governance all rely on the availability of robust broadband and mobile technologies. Governments have had to quickly develop and implement strategies to ensure broadband availability as a cornerstone of economic life.

In the United States, the FCC took a number of actions to help keep consumers online and address the digital divide. FCC actions in this regard helped wired and wireless networks handle the surge without significant service disruptions or declines. Throughout the pandemic, the FCC helped increase national broadband penetration and provide additional support to consumers, businesses, schools and health-care providers. [72]

The FCC COVID-19 broadband strategy was largely based on three principles. First, anticipating that a large portion of American life would be moved online, the FCC determined that access to the internet would be the top priority. Second, the FCC determined that it would secure market participation before using government mandates. And third, the FCC took action to expedite existing FCC processes and partner with other agencies to develop new initiatives. Using these principles as a foundation to build upon, the FCC was able to help keep the United States population connected, help the health-care sector remain effective and efficient, and protect consumers.

(3) Keeping Americans connected

In March 2020, FCC Chairman Ajit Pai announced the Keep Americans Connected Pledge. Under this initiative, broadband and telephone service providers were called on to enter into a voluntary commitment to: (1) not terminate service to any residential or small business customer because of an inability to pay bills due to the disruptions caused by the coronavirus pandemic; (2) waive any late fees that residential or small business customers incurred because of their economic circumstances related to the coronavirus pandemic; and (3) open their Wi-Fi hotspots to any American who needed them. [73] More than 800 service providers agreed to the voluntary terms and took the pledge, with several going above and beyond the original request. One company, for example, provided unlimited Internet data to all customers with home Internet; another offered four months of free broadband service for new customers with telehealth, education and work-from-home needs; while others offered free Internet service and installation for certain low-income families with students, or families living in rural areas where Internet service was unavailable. Actions taken pursuant to the pledge were in effect through 30 June 2020. Thereafter, the FCC encouraged broadband and telephone service providers to take additional steps to help American consumers and small businesses stay connected. Several companies agreed to place customers into pro-rated payment plans for up to 12 months, defer device payments, waive a portion of unpaid balances or, in cases of extraordinary hardship, work with customers on an individual basis. Many also agreed to provide free service to customers in low-income housing through the end of July and to keep Wi-Fi hotspots open until the end of 2020.

As the pledge was nearing expiration, the FCC Chairman sent a letter to Congress seeking to collaborate on legislation to help consumers and small businesses stay connected. He informed Congress that the public-private partnership reflected in the pledge had been critical to maintain connectivity for American consumers and access for low-income families, teleworkers, veterans, and students participating in remote learning. He requested Congress to provide additional funding for telehealth expansion, broadband mapping and an end to American reliance on manufacturers posing a threat to the integrity of the ICT supply chain.

In addition to working with communication providers to secure the pledge in March 2020, the FCC simultaneously took measures to make sure that carriers had sufficient spectrum to meet the anticipated spike in demand for mobile and broadband services caused by quarantine. It issued special temporary authority licences granting mobile carriers access to additional spectrum to serve Puerto Rico and the U.S. Virgin Islands, [74] help Americans participate in telehealth, distance learning and telework, and meet the needs of first responders [75] . The FCC also granted a number of such licences to wireless Internet service providers in rural communities and elsewhere.

The FCC also took action to ensure that Tribal lands in the United States remained connected. In March 2020, it granted special temporary authority licences for 2.5 GHz of spectrum to the Zuni Pueblo Tribe [76] and the Navajo Nation [77] . Additionally, the FCC partnered with the Institute of Museum and Library Services to support using USD 50 million in funding from the CARES Act to work towards bridging the digital divide during the pandemic. Both agencies worked together to inform libraries and Tribal organizations of the funds and resources available to them. They also ensured that libraries across the country were aware that community use of Wi-Fi networks supported by the FCC's Universal Service Fund E-Rate programme was permitted during library closures. [78] The goal of these partnerships was to make sure that rural communities, the Tribes, and organizations serving and representing Native Hawaiians had the resources to respond to the pandemic in ways that met the immediate and future needs of the communities they served.

(4) Public safety and health-care support

Those teleworking, attending class from home or working in the health-care sector need immediate and continued access to mobile and broadband services. Additionally, individuals have increased their reliance on connected care to get virtual medical attention and consultation. To assist with health-care support, the FCC implemented the COVID-19 Telehealth programme, which provided USD 200 million in funding [79] for Americans to safely access vital health-care services. This funding helps health-care professionals provide connected care services to patients at their homes or mobile locations. It provides immediate support to eligible health-care providers responding to the COVID-19 pandemic by fully funding their telecommunication and information services, and devices necessary to provide critical connected care services. The FCC approved 539 funding applications in 47 states, Washington, DC, and Guam, which included recipients in both urban and rural areas of the country, and from coast to coast. [80] To further ensure that health-care providers had the resources they needed, the FCC adopted an order to fully fund all eligible Rural Health Care programme services for the current funding year. [81] The order will enhance connectivity and promote telehealth solutions for patients during this global health emergency. [82]

The FCC also implemented changes to the Rural Health Care [83] (RHC) and E-Rate [84] programmes, to make it easier for broadband providers to support telehealth and remote learning efforts during the pandemic. It waived certain rules to allow service providers to offer, and RHC and E-Rate programme participants to solicit and accept, improved connections or additional equipment for telemedicine or remote learning during the outbreak, thus ensuring that telehealth and remote learning efforts remained available and accessible. [85] In addition to providing support for telehealth services, the FCC and the Department of Education announced efforts to promote remote learning using funds from the CARES Act Education Stabilization Fund. [86] Through this effort, the agencies will work with governors, states and local school districts to leverage funding to help students learning from home during COVID-19. Funding from this initiative may also be used to finance educational technologies, including, hardware, software and connectivity. [87]

As part of utilizing pre-existing programmes to manage the crisis, the FCC took steps to help ensure that no American would be involuntarily removed from the Lifeline programme during the coronavirus pandemic. This programme provides a monthly discount on either a wireline or a wireless service. Lifeline also supports broadband Internet access service and broadband-voice bundles to low-income consumers. [88] To keep consumers connected, the FCC waived several rules that would have otherwise removed subscribers from the programme. The order also waived the programme's usage requirements and general de-enrollment procedures, and extended a recent waiver of its recertification and reverification requirements initially until 29 May 2020 and then until 30 November 2020. [89] The FCC stated that it would continue to monitor the situation to determine whether any additional extension of these waivers was appropriate. Ensuring that individuals already enrolled in the Lifeline programme remain, along with extending access to those recently affected by the pandemic, provides relief to millions of Americans who otherwise would have lost mobile and/or broadband services.

Since the start of the pandemic, many private and public sector employees have been working from home and students have shifted to taking classes online. Employees and students alike have had to rely heavily on platforms that host videoconference services to attend meetings and classes. Under normal circumstances, the sharp increase of users on these platforms would have caused additional rules to be placed on the companies that host them. To mitigate this, the FCC specifically issued a temporary waiver of its access arbitrage rules [90] for one of the telecommunication companies that hosts the traffic for two of the nation's largest conference calling providers. This waiver prevents companies that host applications for videoconferencing from facing financial consequences under the rule. Prior to the waiver, the massive increase of users on applications like Zoom and WebEx would have caused the companies who host these service providers to be deemed an "access-stimulating" carrier under the FCC's rules. Normally, if triggered, this would add additional financial burdens that could impede their ability to host companies providing such video services. [91]

(5) Consumer protection and safety

To maintain relay services for individuals who are deaf, hard of hearing, deaf-blind or have a speech disability during the pandemic, the FCC granted temporary waivers to Telecommunications Relay Service (TRS) providers allowing American Sign Language interpreters to work from home. [92] As a result of the pandemic and states' responsive emergency regulations, traffic levels have increased, challenging the ability of TRS providers to properly staff call centres and answer and process TRS calls. Temporary emergency waivers of the FCC's speed-of-answer requirement, at-home video relay service (VRS) call-handling rules, VRS subcontracting restrictions and provisions of the emergency call handling rule have given TRS service providers greater flexibility to provide valuable services during the pandemic.

Broadcasters have also contributed substantially by making voluntary public service announcements in English and Spanish about social distancing, airing educational programming to help with distance learning, expanding the news coverage of COVID-19, and holding fundraisers to help those facing financial hardship due to the virus. [93] Broadcasting companies have also offered teaching services and tools for students in grades 6-12 along with special programming on the coronavirus. The National Association of Broadcasters offers a coronavirus toolkit in both English and Spanish.

Unfortunately, scams related to Coronavirus fears have increased in the United States and around the world. To combat this, the FCC is raising awareness of the dangers of these fraudulent activities, and of how consumers can mitigate home network and mobile device security issues. It is keeping Americans informed about the types of schemes being used, and how to identify and avoid them. The FCC's Coronavirus Scam webpage identifies text messages, robocalls and contact tracing as the three such schemes used most often to target individuals who may be considered at risk of the virus. The FCC also provides information to consumers through its Consumer Help Center and through the FCC Scam Glossary . In partnership with FEMA, it offers tips for communicating during an emergency, including how to prepare for a power outage. Finally, the FCC has issued guidance on how to optimize the performance of consumer home networks and how to safely sanitize mobile devices. [94]

In a collaborative effort with the Federal Trade Commission (FTC), the FCC has worked to protect consumers from robocalls and provided important information on the dangers of contact tracing scams. On 20 May 2020, both agencies required gateway providers allowing COVID-19-related scam robocalls to cut off this traffic or phone companies would be allowed to block all traffic from those gateway providers' networks. Scams being routed to American consumers included fake COVID-19 refunds, Social Security Administration COVID scams, and Loan Interest Rate Reduction scams. Within 24 hours of the notice, three gateway providers had complied with the demands. This came after a similarly successful push in April 2020 from the agencies that effectively terminated other robocallers' access to American phone networks. [95] Additionally, the FCC has worked hard to inform the public about the dangers of giving information to individuals falsely claiming to be involved in contact tracing. Both the FCC and FTC warn consumers that contact tracing is typically carried out by state health departments and is not a federal programme. These initiatives help prevent users from falling victim to one of these scams.

Finally, the FCC's Broadband Deployment Advisory Committee (BDAC), which is a multistakeholder committee that provides advice and recommendations to the FCC on how to accelerate the deployment of high-speed Internet access, was called upon to provide support for COVID-19 relief initiatives. The BDAC Disaster Response and Recovery Working Group is comprised of representatives from across a broad spectrum of public and private organizations, and includes individuals from states and localities, industry, and consumer and community organizations. [96] In April 2020, it was tasked with assisting the BDAC in documenting the various strategies and solutions being developed and implemented by public and private stakeholders to address the deployment-related challenges presented by the pandemic. The Working Group will use the data collected to report on best practices and lessons learned from the response in order to prepare for and respond to any comparable future crises. The first report and recommendations of the current Working Group were presented to and approved by the full BDAC on 27 March 2020, outlining the strategies for emergencies related to planning, responding and restoring communication access.

Annex 2: ITU intra-Sector and inter-Sector mapping

A2.1 Collaboration with other Questions in ITU-D Study Groups 1 and 2

This section provides a list matching ITU-D Question 5/2 to other Questions being examined by ITU-D Study Groups 1 and 2. The list was reviewed and discussed at Question 5/2 meetings, after which the table below was agreed without any further comments.

Table 7A: Matrix of ITU-D Study Group 1 and 2 intra-sector coordination

Q1/1

Q2/1

Q3/1

Q4/1

Q5/1

Q6/1

Q7/1

Q1/2

Q2/2

Q3/2

Q4/2

Q6/2

Q7/2

Q5/2

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

A2.2 Mapping of ITU-T and ITU-D Questions

Based on ITU study group activities, with the assistance of the three Bureaux the ITU General Secretariat has developed mapping documents [97] , including the mapping of ITU-D and ITU-T Questions. [98]

Table 8A: Matrix of ITU-D Question 5/2 and ITU-T Questions

Q5/2

Q5/2

ITU-T SG2

Q1/2

ITU-T SG11

Q1/11

Q3/2

X

Q2/11

Q5/2

Q3/11

X

Q6/2

Q4/11

Q7/2

Q5/11

ITU-T SG3

Q1/3

Q6/11

Q2/3

Q7/11

Q3/3

Q9/11

Q4/3

Q10/11

Q6/3

Q11/11

Q7/3

Q12/11

Q9/3

Q13/11

Q10/3

Q14/11

Q11/3

Q15/11

Q12/3

ITU-T SG12

Q2/12

Q13/3

Q3/12

ITU-T SG5

Q1/5

Q4/12

X

Q2/5

Q5/12

Q3/5

Q6/12

Q4/5

Q7/12

Q6/5

X

Q8/12

Q7/5

Q11/12

Q8/5

Q12/12

Q9/5

X

Q13/12

ITU-T SG9

Q1/9

Q16/12

Q2/9

Q18/12

Q4/9

Q19/12

Q5/9

Q6/9

Q7/9

Q8/9

Q10/9

Q5/2

Q5/2

ITU-T SG13

Q1/13

ITU-T SG17

Q1/17

Q5/13

Q2/17

Q6/13

Q3/17

Q7/13

Q4/17

Q16/13

Q5/17

Q17/13

Q6/17

Q18/13

Q7/17

Q19/13

Q8/17

Q20/13

Q9/17

Q21/13

Q10/17

Q22/13

Q11/17

Q23/13

Q13/17

ITU-T SG15

Q1/15

X

ITU-T SG20

Q1/20

Q11/15

Q2/20

X

Q12/15

Q3/20

X

Q16/15

X

Q4/20

X

Q17/15

X

Q5/20

ITU-T SG16

Q8/16

X

Q6/20

Q13/16

Q7/20

Q14/16

X

Q21/16

Q24/16

Q26/16

X

Q27/16

Q28/16

A2.3 Mapping of ITU-R and ITU-D work

The mapping with ITU-R [99] is detailed below:

Table 9A: Matrix of ITU-R working parties and ITU-D Question 5/2

R\D

WP 1A

WP 1B

WP 1C

WP 3J

WP 3K

WP 3L

WP 3M

WP 4A

WP 4B

WP 4C

WP 5A

WP 5B

WP 5C

WP 5D

Q5/2

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

R\D

WP 6A

WP 6B

WP 6C

WP 7A

WP 7B

WP 7C

WP 7D

Q5/2

X

X

X

X

Annex 3: Information from ITU-T and ITU-R

A3.1 Framework of disaster management for network resilience and recovery (ITU-T Study Group 15)

ITU-T Study Group 15 provided information on the establishment of the supplement ITU-T L.Sup35 , Framework of Disaster Management for Network Resilience and Recovery, which summarized several architectural frameworks for network resilience and recovery aimed at ensuring continuity of communications as much as possible in the event of a disaster.

A3.2 Informative update in the area of disaster communications (ITU-R Disaster Relief Liaison Rapporteur)

The ITU-R Disaster Relief Liaison Rapporteur frequently provided updated information related to disaster communications in ITU-R and other organizations.

The Liaison Rapporteur provided a comprehensive and informative update of the disaster communication activities, reports, resources, deployments and programmes of ITU-R and numerous ITU, regional and industry partners through October 2017, including a comprehensive update on known Caribbean hurricane responses.

The Liaison Rapporteur also provided a comprehensive list of recent disaster-related activities noted across ITU Sectors, in regional organizations and in industry-specific groups.

The Liaison Rapporteur further provided information about a revision of Question   ITU-R 77-8/5 , on the needs of developing countries in IMT development and implementation.

Lastly, the Liaison Rapporteur provided a comprehensive overview of recent developments relating to emergency communications. The overview included WRC-19 outcomes, ongoing work in ITU-R and ITU-T and various activities by BDT to help countries prepare for and respond to disasters. It also stated that ITU had joined the Crisis Connectivity Charter, a mechanism created between the satellite industry and the wider humanitarian community to make satellite-based communications more readily available to humanitarians and communities in times of disaster.

A3.3 Remote-sensing systems (ITU-R Working Party 7C)

ITU-R Working Party 7C submitted a report on remote-sensing systems in which it noted that ITU-R was updating Recommendation ITU-R RS.1859, on the use of national remote-sensing systems for data collection in the event of disaster. The update would be finalized and sent to the parent group, ITU-R Study Group 7, in September 2018.

A3.4 Country national emergency telecom systems (ITU-T Study Group 2)

ITU-T Study Group 2 sought the review and comments of the Question 5/2 team on the contribution from Benin on improving the emergency telecom system in Benin, which proposes that a new work item be created in ITU-T on developing country national emergency telecom systems. The idea is to define norms and practices regarding countries and their level of development and to work on developing emergency telecommunication infrastructure.

A3.5 Terms and definitions for disaster relief systems, network resilience and recovery (ITU-T Study Group 2)

ITU-T Study Group 2 provided information on its work on E.TD-DR, Terms and definitions for disaster relief systems, network resilience and recovery.

ITU-T Study Group 2 also provided information about the finalized ITU-T Recommendation E.102 (ex E.td-dr), Terms and definitions for disaster relief systems, network resilience and recovery, and E.100-series Supplement 1 (ex. E.sup.fdr).

A3.6 Framework of disaster management for disaster relief systems (ITU-T Study Group 2)

ITU-T Study Group 2 informed the Question 5/2 meeting about E.SUP.FDR, Framework of disaster management for disaster relief systems. It was noted that section 6 of this supplement ("Overview of early-warning and disaster relief systems") is relevant to Question 5/2.

ITU-T Study Group 2 also informed the meeting that a new Focus Group on Artificial intelligence for natural disaster management (FG-AI4NDM) has been established under ITU-T SG2. The background and practical information can be found on the group's homepage: http:// itu .int/ go/ fgai4ndm .

A3.7 Global broadband Internet access by fixed-satellite service systems (ITU-R Working Party 4A)

ITU-R Working Party 4A provided information on progress on Recommendation ITU-R S.1782 , Possibilities for global broadband Internet access by fixed-satellite service systems.

A3.8 The fast deployment emergency telecommunication network (ITU-T Study Group 11)

ITU-T Study Group 11 provided information on its progress in drafting Recommendation ITU-T Q.ETN-DS, Signalling architecture of the fast deployment emergency telecommunication network to be used in a natural disaster, which focused on a number of emerging technologies.

ITU-T Study Group 11 reported that Recommendation ITU-T Q.3060 (former Q.ETN-DS) had been consented at its meeting in July 2020.

It was noted that the corresponding completed work item should be removed from the mapping table between ITU-D and ITU-T.

A3.9 Fixed wireless systems for disaster mitigation and relief operations (ITU-R Study Group 5)

ITU-R Study Group 5 provided information on its update of Recommendation ITU-R F.1105 , Fixed Wireless Systems for disaster mitigation and relief operations.

A3.10 Satellite systems (ITU-R Working Party 4B)

ITU-R Working Party 4B, on interrelated activities of ITU-R and ITU-D, noted the update of Report ITU-R M.NGAT-SAT, on Key Elements for Integration of Satellite Systems into Next Generation Access Activities. It also provided information on the update of Recommendation ITU-R S.1782 , Possibilities for Broadband Internet Access by Fixed Satellite Service Systems.

A3.11 Public protection and disaster relief (ITU-R Working Party 5A)

ITU-R Working Party 5A provided information on several ITU-R Recommendations and Reports that could be relevant to work on Question 5/2. All ITU-R Recommendations and Reports on PPDR, including those related to the role of the amateur service in disaster relief, are included in section 6 of the document entitled ' Guide to the use of ITU-R texts relating to the land mobile service, including wireless access in the fixed service '. Recently updated publications include Recommendations ITU-R  M.2009 and ITU-R  M.2015 and Reports ITU-R M.2377 'Radiocommunication objectives and requirements for Public Protection and Disaster Relief (PPDR)' and ITU-R M.2415 'Spectrum needs for Public Protection and Disaster Relief'.

A3.12 IMT Public protection and disaster relief (ITU-R Working Party 5D)

ITU-R Working Party 5D informed the Question 5/2 meeting that Report ITU-R M.2291, which addressed the use of International Mobile Telecommunications for broadband PPDR and had originally been completed by Working Party 5D in 2013 before being updated in 2016, had been updated again in March 2021. This report describes the benefits of using LTE to support PPDR radiocommunications. The current update addresses the use of IMT 2020 to support PPDR radiocommunications.

Annex 4: Information on workshops and panel sessions

A4.1 Panel session on early-warning systems [100]

Geneva, Switzerland

8 May 2018

Summary

Introduction

As part of the work of ITU-D Study Group 2on Question 5/2,and with the support of the administrations of Japan and the United States, the Question 5/2 meeting organized a panel session on early-warning systems, including safety confirmation, on 8 May 2018. The session was an opportunity to present a high-level introduction to numerous stakeholders involved in early warning, with activities including disaster prediction and detection, alerts, emergency information and safety confirmation. The discussion focused on identifying the lessons learned from the experiences of a diverse group of stakeholders. The discussion results were to be considered for further study as the Question turned to early warning in 2018, with key findings incorporated into the annual report of Question 5/2 for 2018 on early warning.

Session details

The session was opened by Hideo Imanaka, Vice-Rapporteur of Question 5/2, NICT, Japan, who briefly explained the background and objectives of the panel session.

Cosmas Zavazava, Chief, Project Support and Knowledge Management, BDT, delivered opening remarks on ITU activities on disaster relief. Panel sessions and workshops were very important for exchanging information and experience within ITU-D, with other ITU sectors and with other organizations. The conclusions and best practices from the panel session would be valuable for the work on Question 5/2.

Discussion

The panel session, led by Joseph Burton, Co-Rapporteur for ITU-D Study Group 2 on Question 5/2, Department of State, United States,discussed both current and emerging technologies for early-warning systems. The experiences of government, industry and research institute stakeholders in planning and preparation for detecting disasters and issuing alerts must continuously evolve based on lessons learned from previous disasters.

Xu TANG, Weather and Disaster Risk Reduction Service Department, WMO, briefly explained WMO activities that can benefit national early-warning and alert activities, including the Multi-Hazard Early-Warning Systems Checklist and the Climate Risk and Early-Warning Systems Initiative. WMO had also adopted the CAP (ITU-T X.1303) and the alerting platform called Alert Hub. The Global Multi-hazard Alert System aimed to provide authoritative information and advice for the operational and long-term decision-making processes of United Nations agencies and the humanitarian community.

Imani ELLIS-CHEEK SY, Federal Communications Commission, United States, provided an overview of the modernization of United States alerting systems, including the Emergency Alert System and Wireless Emergency Alerts. The Emergency Alert System delivered alert messages by broadcast radio and television, cable television and direct broadcast satellite. Wireless Emergency Alerts sent alert messages to mobile phones in targeted areas. It could also send Child Abduction Alerts.

Azar ZARREBINI, Iridium, United States, shared information about the importance of early-warning systems using satellite technologies. Satellites could provide timely emergency communications in the event of a disaster, but emergency deployments of satellite equipment were often hindered by licensing or regulatory issues. In the future, communication policy-makers should consider policies that would enable, and not delay, the use of M2M-based disaster detection applications, which had implications for early warning.

Yulia KOULIKOVA, EMEA Satellite Operators Association (ESOA), Belgium, introduced the activities of the ESOA Multi-hazard Early-Warning System. ESOA had a programme called SATLAS, which was co-funded by European Space Agency Advanced Research in Telecommunications Systems (ARTES). SATLAS was an incubator for developing satellite communication applications. Its target market was the Middle East and Africa, plus Europe. As with the flood early-warning system, the ESOA stand-alone flood monitoring solution used BGAN M2M, which could also be used to create a tsunami early-warning system whereby sensors monitored real-time changes in sea level and other parameters. The resulting data could be sent via specific platforms to systems able to trigger sirens to alert citizens to an emergency situation. The system was being tested in Thailand.

Yoshiaki NAGAYA, Ministry of Internal Affairs and Communications, Japan, briefly introduced the latest research activities on early warning in Japan. Real-time big-data analysis could be used to detect localized torrential rainfall. 3-D images captured by newly developed radars were analysed in a very short time and alert messages sent 20 minutes before the rainfall started. Analysing SNS messages could be helpful for disaster detection. The DISAANA (DISaster information ANAlyzer) system developed by NICT could analyse SNS (e.g. Twitter) messages, which were available in extremely large numbers and contained non-structured data. The outputs of DISAANA could be used to assess victim needs and monitor disaster-affected areas.

Conclusions and best practices

During the panel discussion, the representatives of Sudan, Niger, Benin, ATDI, Côte d'Ivoire, the United Republic of Tanzania, South Africa and Ghana engaged in an active discussion with the panellists and BDT. The following items were recognized as best practices (see Section 7.1(A) of this report for a complete description of each item):

• keep developing country needs in mind;

• ensure flexibility;

• ensure regulatory flexibility;

• adapt emergency alert systems;

• ensure connectivity;

• build capacity;

• develop enabling policies;

• continuously improve emergency procedures;

• be alert to technological advances;

Other areas for consideration were as follows:

• advance training on satellite systems;

• last-mile warning messages from local government to citizens, and the capacity of satellite systems;

• the ongoing pursuit of disaster risk knowledge, which can be expanded by systematically collecting data and assessing disaster risks (detection, monitoring, analysis and forecasting of hazards and possible consequences) and thus enable the communication of timely, accurate, relevant and actionable warnings with information on likelihood, impact and recommended action;

• the need for ongoing stakeholder coordination.

Contributions to Question 5/2 in 2018 that took early-warning system experiences and needs into account would be valuable for further consideration.

Sanjeev BANZAL, Co-Rapporteur of Question 5/2, Telecom Regulatory Authority of India, India, summarized the outcomes of the panel discussion, which had covered everything from regulatory issues to emerging technologies such as M2M and SNS, and the importance of the Multi-Hazard Early-Warning Systems Checklist. Early-warning systems were clearly of great interest to participants, who were encouraged to engage in further information exchanges, in particular by submitting contributions providing specific examples of the application of technologies to specific areas of early-warning systems, and of enabling policies, to the October 2018 meeting on Question 5/2.

Ahmad R. SHARAFAT, ITU-D Study Group 2 Chairman, Islamic Republic of Iran, closed the session by thanking the Question 5/2 management team, BDT, the panellists and the participants for their fruitful discussions.

A4.2 Session on disaster drills and emerging technologies on disaster management [101]

Geneva, Switzerland

3 October 2018

Summary

Introduction

As part of the work of ITU-D Study Group 2on Question 5/2, the Question 5/2 meeting organized a session on disaster drills and emerging technologies on disaster management on Wednesday, 3 October 2018. The session consisted of three detailed workshops and aimed to present and exchange information on disaster drills, exercises and emerging technologies. The discussion focused on identifying lessons learned based on the experiences of a diverse group of stakeholders. The discussion results would be considered for further study as the Question turned to disaster drills in 2019, with key findings incorporated into the annual report of Question 5/2 for 2019 on disaster drills using ICTs.

Note: All presentations for this session are available on the event website .

Session details

The session was opened by Sanjeev Banzal, Co-Rapporteur for Question 5/2, India, who welcomed participants, then briefly explained the background and objectives.

Workshop 1: Experiences of disaster drills using emergency telecommunication systems

Workshop 1 was moderated by Hideo Imanaka, Vice-Rapporteur for Question 5/2, NICT, Japan. Its objectives were:

– to explore experiences of actual disaster drills using ICTs;

– to consider the lessons learned from those experiences and the effectiveness of the drills in emergency situations;

– to discuss the key objectives of drills, and how stakeholders were involved.

Lars Bromley, United Nations Institute for Training and Research (UNITAR), presented UNITAR's role in disaster preparedness and drills , briefly explaining UNITAR and UNOSAT activities for disaster drills and assessment of disaster-affected areas using satellite imagery analysis technologies. The Triplex exercise, a large-scale field simulation exercise focusing on strengthening preparedness and response in regard to coordination and effective emergency response held in Norway in 2016, had simulated hurricanes and floods and been attended by over 100 participants from several organizations, including UNOSAT, which had hosted the Virtual Onsite Operations Coordination Centre. The exercise had shown that frequent drills were important for ensuring that emergency systems were available and operational when needed.

Jeffrey Llanto, Central Visayas Information Sharing Network Foundation (CVISNet), Philippines, gave a remote presentation on the Use of emergency telecommunication systems in disaster-management drills: the case of the Philippines , which provided an overview of CVISNet's emergency telecommunication drills, exercises and training courses in the Philippines. MDRUs had been used in ITU projects in the Philippines in 2014. Because of the dual benefits of regularly utilizing this technology and bringing connectivity, CVISNet was considering using MDRUs to provide connectivity between disasters.

The representative of India asked how MDRUs connected with communication networks. Mr Llanto responded that MDRUs had interfaces with ordinary telephone networks and the Internet.

Hiroshi Kumagai, NICT, Japan, gave a presentation on Emergency communication drills in metropolitan areas , which introduced MDRUs, the "NerveNet" (ad hoc network system) and actual disaster drills using ICTs held in Japan. The lessons learned from the drills were that the battery capacity of ICT equipment was a significant factor; that it was important to ensure a power supply in disasters; and that NerveNet and MDRUs could be utilized in disasters.

The representative of India asked how big the MDRU was. Dr Kumagai responded that there were several types of MDRU, some as large as containers, others fitting into attaché cases (the moderator showed the participants an actual attaché case-type system). No additional equipment was needed when MDRU software was installed on smartphones. In reply to a question from the representative of the United States, he said that MDRUs could be pre-positioned before a disaster and deployed post-disaster.

Akihiro Nakatani, Astem, Japan, gave a presentation on Disaster relief applications for broadcasting services , introducing an IPTV-based translation system for persons with impaired hearing, called "Eye Dragon", which combined sign language and captions with live terrestrial TV programmes to assist persons with disabilities. The system could provide significant information to such persons in the event of a disaster. Thanks to the system and to the experience of disaster drills, the lives of persons with disabilities had been saved during the Great East Japan earthquake and the tsunami of March 2011.

In reply to a question from the representative of Nigeria, Mr Nakatani said that IPTV broadband networks were needed to receive sign language translation for live television; the service could not be provided on over-the-air television (terrestrial TV).

Workshop 2: Emerging technologies on disaster management

Workshop 2 was moderated by Abdulkarim Ayopo Oloyede, Vice-Rapporteur for Question 5/2, Nigeria. The discussion points were as follows:

– understand how technologies are being applied;

– policies that enable the advancement and deployment of evolving technologies;

– explore examples and types of new emerging disaster-management technology, including recent and expected technological evolutions.

Emily Yousling, Google, United States, gave a presentation on The role of the Loon project in disaster risk reduction . She explained how Google Loon had been used after Hurricane Maria in Puerto Rico and floods in Peru, and how it could be used around the world to provide access to telecommunication services before, during and after a disaster. It was important to pre-position communication capacity, and not wait until disaster struck to take action to ensure communication redundancy, as it took some time to restore network infrastructure.

The representative of India asked whether Loon's altitude (20 km above ground) posed flight path issues, how licensed spectrum for LTE services would be obtained for deployments, and how power was supplied to Loon (which was considered a "base station-in-the-sky") in the rainy season and at night, given that Loon was solar powered. Ms Yousling responded that due care was taken to ensure that the Loon network did not interfere with flight paths and that the spectrum utilized was that of existing telecom operators for whom Loon had been deployed. Regarding power supply, the fact that multiple Loons were deployed enabled consistent service.

Salma Farouque, Emergency Telecommunications Cluster (ETC), WFP, gave a presentation on the Practical use of drones in disaster response and recovery . The ETC was the part of the United Nations Cluster System responsible for telecommunications. In certain disasters, it could provide secure communications through VHF and Internet connectivity thanks to quick deployment of satellite terminals and Wi-Fi. It could also provide user assistance and help support communication coordination and information management. Other potential services included liaison with government authorities, preparedness assistance and services for communities, including drone coordination. Drones could be used for multiple humanitarian purposes, including mapping, monitoring, search and rescue, delivery, and providing communication during the response and recovery phases.

Yuichi Ono, Tohoku University, Japan, gave a presentation on the Global Centre for Disaster Statistics . He described the use of big data in emergency situations, noting the need for statistics/record keeping on the impacts of disasters in different countries of the world. The data collected could be used by a country during the recovery process. The Centre had helped different countries to prepare and plan in order to shorten the recovery process and mitigate future disasters.

Vanessa Gray, ITU/BDT, gave a presentation on Disruptive technologies and disaster management . ITU supported Member States with capacity-building assistance to promote preparedness and post-disaster recovery. Technology should be used to assist in all phases of disaster management. ITU was putting together a disaster-management toolkit and drafting guidelines for emergency communication planning that could be adapted by Member States.

Workshop 3: Disaster management and drills using ICTs

Workshop 3 was moderated by Joseph Burton, Co-Rapporteur of Question 5/2, United States. The objectives were as follows:

– provide examples of the range, scope and frequency of emergency communications exercises and drills;

– understand how exercises and drills can increase preparedness, and ways to increase the effectiveness of drills;

– how to tailor drills and exercises to national conditions and complex emergencies;

– identifying potential participants and enabling robust stakeholder engagement;

– discuss the use of innovative technologies in preparedness exercises and of old technologies in innovative ways to support preparedness and response.

Salma Farouque, Emergency Telecommunications Cluster (ETC), WFP, gave a presentation on Coordinating communications drills and exercises – setting the stage . She discussed the range of communication exercises that might be considered, from a table-top exercise to a functional exercise, to perform a full-scale drill like WFP's "opEx Bravo". The purpose of an exercise was to test procedures and enhance preparedness, by documenting and verifying existing procedures and identifying and addressing gaps. Among the factors and steps to consider when planning an exercise, it was important to set objectives in advance, and to hold not only a debriefing or an after-action, but also to draft an action plan to address and fix any issues identified. Exercise participants might include the regulator, the Ministry of Communications, the national disaster-management agency, meteorological and geophysics departments (or other hazard-warning entities), communication service providers, power utilities, humanitarian organizations and community stakeholders.

Rod Stafford, International Amateur Radio Union (IARU), gave a presentation, Communications drills and exercises – the amateur radio perspective, in which he described the use and application of amateur radio in a range of communication drills. When communication infrastructure was down, amateur radio might be the only way to communicate in certain areas. It was therefore important to incorporate amateur radio, which might provide communication redundancy, into drills and exercises. Communication technologies used by amateur radio included HF, VHF, microwave frequencies and amateur radio satellites.

The representative of Japan noted that amateur radio enabled SIDS to communicate across many islands and great distances. Many participants agreed that young people were often unaware of the existence of amateur radio; that generation gap should be overcome. Ahmad Sharafat, Chairman of ITU-D Study Group 2, Islamic Republic of Iran, suggested that the IARU submit a white paper on the benefits and operational modes of amateur radio.

Preeti Banzal, India, gave a presentation on India's experience executing a mega drill in the Western Himalaya region , to provide the perspective of communication officials coordinating part of a national disaster (earthquake) exercise. The scenario had enabled a detailed review of preparedness, training and coordination between national and state officials. The exercise had not only tested the response capabilities of various agencies across all levels of government, it had also identified gaps in policies, procedures and training for further action, and helped facilitate preparation of response plans at all levels of government.

The representative of Intel stressed the importance of educating people about back-up/redundant means of communication.

Conclusions and best practices

Sanjeev Banzal, Co-Rapporteur for Question 5/2, India, summarized the outcomes of the workshop discussions in terms of lessons learned and best practices related to disaster drills and exercises, and the use of emerging technologies for disaster management (see Section 7.1(B) of this report for a complete summary). He thanked all the speakers, moderators, participants, BDT staff and interpreters for their active support and contributions.

A4.3 Session on conducting national-level emergency communications drills and exercises: Guidelines for small island developing States and least developed countries [102]

Geneva, Switzerland

7 October 2019

Summary

Introduction

The session on national emergency ICT drills and exercises was held on Monday, 7 October 2019, in conjunction with the Question 5/2 Rapporteur Group meeting on Utilizing telecommunications/ICTs for disaster risk reduction and management .

The session was opened by Doreen Bogdan-Martin, Director, BDT, ITU,who had just returned from the Bahamas, where she had witnessed the devastating damage in Abaco and Grand Bahamas caused by Hurricane Dorian. ITU had identified numerous opportunities to provide disaster preparedness capacity-building support to the Bahamas and other Member States, including for the advance consideration of policies/regulations to enable roaming in disasters, the implementation of the ITU Global Guidelines for Drafting National Emergency Telecommunications Plans, and guidance from ITU partners on the conduct of ICT drills and exercises. ICT preparedness planning was a universal need, hence the importance of holding continued ICT preparedness-focused workshops. She thanked the panellists for coming to Geneva, highlighted the importance of drills and exercises for testing and refining policies and plans, and outlined the session programme and objectives.

Session methodology

The session featured three workshops, each moderated by Question 5/2 Co-Rapporteur Joseph Burton. Workshop 1 featured presentations by Vanuatu and Haiti, followed by a guided table-top exercise. In addition to a presentation by each panellist, an open discussion among panellists was held in Workshops 2 and 3, which reflected the phases of drills and exercises, from planning to after-actions and translating lessons learned into updated policies.

The session then introduced capacity-building resources and tools that BDT had recently developed in coordination with partners such as the Emergency Telecom Cluster, to help Member States develop a robust emergency communication framework and preparedness programme, including NETPs and ICT drills and exercises.

The outcomes of the discussions would be incorporated into the annual report by Question 5/2 on guidelines for conducting ICT drills and exercises.

Workshop presentations

Workshop 1. Small island developing State and least developed country experiences of planning disaster drills

– John Jack, Office of the Government Chief Information Officer, Vanuatu, gave a presentation on Vanuatu's experience of exercises and drills .

– Gregory Domond, Conseil National des Télécommunications (CONATEL), Haiti, gave a presentation on earthquake and tsunami drills and exercises in Haiti .

– Joseph Burton, Cyber and International Communications and Information Policy, United States, led participants through a table-top simulation exercise developed by the ETC and ITU for the 2019 Global Symposium for Regulators, on the role of the regulator in disaster management .

Workshop 2. Conducting drills: a guided discussion with panelists and participants

• Antwane Johnson, FEMA, United States, gave a presentation on IPAWS and the use of alert and warning in drills and exercises .

• Rod Stafford, International Amateur Radio Union, gave a presentation on Amateur radio – prepared for drills and exercises .

• Justin Williams, Network Disaster Recovery, AT&T, United States, gave a presentation on Leveraging ICTs for disaster and response: what have we learned .

• Dulip Tillekeratne, Mobile for Humanitarian Innovation, GSMA, gave a presentation on engaging with mobile network operators on drills and exercises.

Workshop 3. The wrap-up: capturing and turning lessons learned into action

• Ria Sen, Emergency Telecommunications Cluster (ETC), WFP, introduced the ETC-ITU table-top simulation exercise guide , which was soon to be finalized.

• Maritza Delgado, BDT, ITU,presented the range of available ITU capacity-building assistance. BDT developed information resources to increase overall ICT preparedness and response coordination, including by utilizing the recently developed Guidelines for national emergency telecommunication plans, in addition to other preparedness services developed in partnership with the ETC for Member States.

Note: Most of the presentations for this session are available on the event website . Best practices and lessons learned from presentations (and workshop discussions) will be reflected in the Question 5/2 session outcome document on guidelines for conducting national ICT drills and exercises.

Session outcomes

Preparations for the session resulted in a draft outcome document containing guidelines for conducting national ICT exercises and drills that could be tailored to meet the unique needs of SIDS and LDCs. Co-Rapporteur Joseph Burton presented the draft in Document SG2RGQ/TD/12 during the Rapporteur Group meeting for Question 5/2 held on 8 October 2019. The guidelines will be updated with key learnings, including lessons learned and best practices from workshop discussions. Input from workshop participants is welcome. The final draft of the guidelines will be incorporated into the annual report of Question 5/2 on ICT drills and exercises. (See Section 7.1(C) of this report).

A4.4 Public webinar on enabling policy environment for disaster management, including for COVID-19 response [103]

Virtual meeting

14 July 2020

During the study period, Question 5/2 conducted a public webinar, Enabling Policy Environment for Disaster Management, including for COVID-19 response, chaired by Ahmad Reza Sharafat, Chairman of ITU-D Study Group 2. The main objectives of the webinar were to:

– discuss the constituent elements of an enabling policy environment for increasing emergency telecommunication preparedness, network resilience, disaster risk reduction and disaster management;

– provide examples of policies that enable flexibility when deploying emergency communication equipment and successful disaster preparedness and response with respect to telecommunications and ICTs;

– share ITU member experiences and lessons learned in developing and implementing enabling policies and NETPs.

During the webinar, expert panellists discussed the importance of implementing measures and polices that would ensure the continued functioning of communication networks during disasters, such as declaring telecommunication networks as essential services or performing organized drills. The webinar also featured examples of policies for preparedness and different responses observed around the globe during the COVID-19 pandemic.

Juan Roldan, Luxon Consulting Group, initiated the presentations by discussing the challenges that come with developing an NETP. An effective NETP accounted for multiple hazards, used multiple technologies, contained multiple phases and was supported by multiple stakeholders. NETPs needed political will and support, and governments must clearly identify which specific department or agency was responsible for emergency telecommunications.

Continuing on the theme of cross-sectoral collaboration, Chris Anderson, CenturyLink Global Network, advocated for public-private partnerships, declaring them to be necessary for effective disaster management. Such partnerships should always be assembled during the "blue sky scenario", meaning before disaster actually struck, since it was much harder to bring the necessary people together during a crisis.

Concluding the first segment of the webinar, Paul Margie, Télécoms Sans Frontières (TSF), explained that, while disaster management was never one-size-fits-all, commonalities could be observed in the countries where TSF worked. These included training beforehand, formally recognizing ICTs as critical infrastructure, publicly identifying points of contact for ICT response, developing procedures so that experts could enter quickly, and adopting mechanisms within the telecom regulator to speed decision-making. In that respect, special temporary authorities could enable rapid changes to be made when they were most needed.

COVID-19 responses from around the globe

The second segment of the webinar focused on COVID-19 responses observed in different countries worldwide. Maritza Delgado, ITU Programme Officer, explained that tracking and analysing such responses was one of the main objectives of REG4COVID, an ITU initiative designed to help communities stay connected during crises and to prepare medium- and long-term recovery measures. The Global Network Resiliency Platform was just one example.

Kathryn O'Brien, Chief of Staff, International Bureau, Federal Communications Commission (FCC), United States, shared some of the FCC's guiding principles, the first being to set clear priorities. It was also important to work with the private sector. Technology must go hand-in-hand with policy to produce effective disaster responses.

Ryosuke Shibasaki, professor, University of Tokyo, Japan, focused on information on people flows and population density statistics for better-informed decision-making. Open-source analysis software could use big data from mobile serial data to support COVID-19 responses by measuring movements. The software's development had originally been triggered by ITU in 2015, and it was now in operation in several African countries.

Funke Opeke, MainOne CEO, Nigeria, shared the challenges faced by developing countries in coping with COVID-19.

Rahul Vatts, Chief Regulatory Officer, Bharti Airtel Limited, India, explained that traffic had surged by up to 50 per cent during the pandemic, creating infrastructure challenges for India at a time when maintenance staff found it difficult to move because of lockdowns. Telecommunication service providers had overcome the challenge thanks to the special permissions from the Government and the regulator to move telecom staff across critical sites. To address maintenance concerns, the telecommunication service providers worked with over-the-top providers, as network optimization was an ongoing necessity. The Government had directed providers to change the ring-back tone and ringtone of all landlines – nearly 987 million working phones – to a special COVID-19 message asking subscribers to stay home and practice social distancing.

Lessons learned: Enabling policy today saves lives tomorrow

Access to a robust, resilient and secure ICT infrastructure worldwide is critical in a pandemic and in any kind of disaster. ICTs are essential for power, security, health and sanitation – essential services in a global emergency. However, their ability to perform as needed required an enabling policy environment able to do many things, from granting temporary authority for additional spectrum use to giving complimentary recharge margins for emergency calls.

Among the many other lessons learned from the COVID-19 pandemic was the fact that the world's telecommunication networks and digital infrastructure must be better prepared for disasters of all kinds. Collectively, drills had to be carried out and rapid response measures prepared, since future disasters – including pandemics – could occur anytime, anywhere, and with little to no warning.

Any negative consequences of disasters could be diminished if robust and resilient networks and disaster-management tools were in place well ahead of time.

(See Section 7.1(D) of this report)

Note: All presentations for the webinar are available on the event website .

Annex 5: List of contributions and liaison statements received on Question 5/2

Contributions on Question 5/2

Web

Received

Source

Title

2/420

2021-03-15

Co-Rapporteurs for Question 5/2, Vice-Rapporteur for Question 5/2

Proposed liaison statement from ITU-D Study Group 2 Question 5/2 to ITU-R Working Party 5D on the Output Report on Question 5/2

2/419

2021-03-15

Co-Rapporteurs for Question 5/2, Vice-Rapporteur for Question 5/2

Proposed liaison statement from ITU-D Study Group 2 Question 5/2 to ITU-R Working Party 5A on the Output Report on Question 5/2

2/418

2021-03-15

Co-Rapporteurs for Question 5/2, Vice-Rapporteur for Question 5/2

Proposed liaison statement from ITU-D Study Group 2 Question 5/2 to ITU-T SGs, ITU-R SGs, UN organizations and external organizations on the Output Report on Question 5/2

2/410

2021-03-03

Inmarsat

Input Contribution to the Draft Output Report on Question 5/2

2/401

2021-03-02

National Institute of Information and Communications Technology (NICT) (Japan)

Proposal of communication technologies and its use case of an autonomous distributed information and communications system "Die-Hard Network" for disaster countermeasure

2/397
(Rev.1)

2021-03-15

Co-Rapporteurs for Question 5/2, Vice-Rapporteur for Question 5/2

Proposed liaison statement from ITU-D Study Group 2 Question 5/2 to ITU-T Study Group 2 and FG-AI4NDM on the Output Report on Question 5/2 and future of the Question

2/TD/36

2021-02-23

Co-Rapporteurs for Question 5/2, Vice-Rapporteur for Question 5/2

Proposed liaison statement from ITU-D Study Group 2 Question 5/2 to ITU-T Study Group 2 and FG-AI4NDM

2/391
+Ann.1

2021-02-17

EMEA Satellite Operators Association (ESOA/GSC)

Proposed observations and suggestions for final report

2/388

2021-01-28

BDT Focal Point for Question 5/2

ITU-D activities in disaster risk reduction and management

2/384

2021-01-28

Algeria

Exercise to simulate the implementation of the civil security plan for telecommunications

2/383

2021-01-28

China

Suggestions for adding ICT to respond to major epidemics in the new research period Qx/2 subject

RGQ2/TD/29

2020-10-15

Algérie Télécom SPA (Algeria)

Proposed liaison statement from ITU-D Study Group 2 Question 5/2 to ITU-R Working Party 5B on utilizing telecommunications/ICTs for disaster risk reduction and Management

RGQ2/TD/24
(Rev.1)

2020-10-14

Co-Rapporteurs for Question 5/2

Proposed liaison statements from ITU-D Study Group 2 Question 5/2

RGQ2/283

2020-09-22

United States

FCC Actions in Response to COVID-19 in the United States

RGQ2/279
(Rev.1)

2020-09-22

BDT Focal Point for Question 5/2

ITU-D activities in disaster risk reduction and management

RGQ2/262

2020-09-20

National Institute of Information and Communications Technology (NICT) (Japan)

Proposal for case studies of a chatbot system "SOCDA" for disaster countermeasure

RGQ2/237

2020-08-20

EMEA Satellite Operators Association (ESOA/GSC)

Satellite Connectivity for Climate Monitoring & Early Warning

RGQ2/228

2020-08-16

China

Considerations and practices related to disaster preparedness, reduction, and response from an Operator's perspective

RGQ2/222

2020-08-07

Burundi

The contribution of ICTs in managing the effects of floods in Burundi

RGQ2/220 (Rev.1)

2020-08-06

China

Contribution of ICT to the fight against the COVID-19 pandemic

RGQ2/207
+Ann.1

2020-05-05

AASCTC (Sudan)

Global Open Science Cloud for Disaster Risk Reduction (GOSC-DRR)

2/TD/33

2020-02-27

Co-Rapporteurs for Question 5/2

October workshop concept for discussion: "The Enabling Policy Environment Increased Emergency Telecommunication Preparedness, Network Resilience, Disaster Risk Reduction and Disaster Management"

2/TD/32

2020-02-26

Co-Rapporteurs for Question 5/2

Draft guidelines for conducting national level emergency communications drills and exercises for Small Island Developing States (SIDS) and Least Developed Countries (LDCs)

2/TD/31

2020-02-26

Co-Rapporteurs for Question 5/2

Updated Document: Draft annual report of Question 5/2 on Early-Warning Systems, including Safety Confirmation

2/327
(Rev.1)

2020-02-11

Loon LLC (United States)

Regulatory considerations when enabling innovative preparedness and emergency communications solutions

2/310

2020-01-24

BDT Focal Point for Question 5/2

ITU-D activities in disaster risk reduction and management

2/309

2020-01-27

Japan

Proposal for case studies of locally accessible cloud system for disaster countermeasures

2/308

2020-01-24

Facebook

Sharing Mobile Application Data to Empower Disaster-Response Organizations

2/277

2020-01-03

China

Use of telecommunication/information and communication technology (ICT) for disaster prevention, mitigation and response

2/269

2019-12-31

India

The role of social media platforms in disaster mitigation, response and relief

2/252

2019-12-16

Democratic Republic of the Congo

Utilizing telecommunications/ICTs to manage Ebola virus disease in the Democratic Republic of the Congo

RGQ2/TD/12

2019-10-07

Co-Rapporteur for Question 5/2

Draft guidelines for conducting national level emergency communications drills and exercises for Small Island Developing States (SIDS) and Least Developed Countries (LDCs)

RGQ2/190

2019-09-23

World Food Programme

Standardization forum: emergency telecommunications

RGQ2/188
(Rev.1)

2019-09-24

Japan

Proposal for case studies of e-education in rural areas through ordinary use of emergency telecommunication systems

RGQ2/183

2019-09-23

China

Analysis of emergency communication key service requirements and technology development

RGQ2/182
+Ann.1-2

2019-09-23

World Food Programme

ETC-ITU Emergency Telecommunications Preparedness Checklist

RGQ2/152
+Ann.1

2019-08-22

United States

Integrated Public Alert and Warning System Open Platform for Emergency Networks (IPAWS-OPEN) on standards-based alert and warning

RGQ2/150

2019-08-22

United States

Remote-sensing activities in ITU-R

RGQ2/148

2019-08-22

BDT Focal Point for Question 5/2

ITU-D activities in disaster risk reduction and management

RGQ2/147

2019-08-21

India

Importance of ICT early-warning system for saving life and property: case of extremely sever Cyclone 'Fani'

RGQ2/145

2019-08-21

New Zealand

Implementation of Common Alerting Protocol (CAP) in New Zealand

RGQ2/121

2019-07-09

Haiti

Emergency telecommunication system in Haiti

2/216

2019-03-12

Co-Rapporteurs for Question 5/2

October workshop concept for discussion: "Guidelines for Conducting National Level Emergency Communications Drills and Exercises for Small Island Developing States (SIDs) and Lesser Developed Countries (LDCs)"

2/212

2019-03-12

BDT Focal Point for Question 5/2

ITU-D activities in disaster risk reduction and management

2/184

2019-02-12

Co-Rapporteurs for Question 5/2

Output Document: Draft annual report of Question 5/2 on Early-Warning Systems, including Safety Confirmation

2/176

2019-02-07

Co-Rapporteurs for Question 5/2

Proposed revised work plan for study Question 5/2

2/159

2019-02-05

China

Development and practices of intelligent emergency telecommunications

2/158

2019-02-05

China Telecommunications Corporation (China)

Thinking and Practices of Operator's Disaster Preparedness, Disaster Reduction and Disaster Response

2/157
(Rev.1)

2019-02-05

China

Disseminating emergency alerts via new signalling pathways

2/134

2019-01-11

Cameroon

Support for regional implementation of the National Emergency Telecommunications Network project

RGQ2/TD/7

2018-10-01

Russian Federation

ITU-D SG1 and SG2 coordination: Mapping of ITU-D Study Group 1 and 2 Questions

RGQ2/83

2018-09-18

BDT Focal Point for Question 5/2

ITU-D activities in disaster risk reduction and management

RGQ2/78

2018-09-18

India

The role of Information and Communication Technology (ICT) in disaster mitigation, prediction and response

RGQ2/77

2018-09-18

India

Trial runs for implementation of Common Alert Protocol-based early-warning system

RGQ2/74
+Ann.1

2018-09-18

Japan

Global Centre for Disaster Statistics - a joint initiative with UNDP contributing to the Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction and SDGs

RGQ2/61

2018-09-13

China

Emergency telecommunication drill

RGQ2/60

2018-09-13

National Institute of Information and Communications Technology (NICT) (Japan)

Early warning and early data collection of disaster information; recent development in Japan

RGQ2/33

2018-08-16

Brazil

Emergency, public calamity and disaster alerts using telecommunication services - Brazil's implementation

2/TD/4

2018-04-27

WMO

Multi-Hazard Early-Warning Systems: A Checklist

2/93
(Rev.1)

2018-04-24

BDT Focal Point for Question 5/2

ITU-D activities in disaster risk reduction and management

2/70

2018-04-23

India

The role of information and communication technology (ICT) in disaster mitigation, prediction and response

2/59

2018-03-23

United States

Draft work plan for Question 5/2

2/56
(Rev.1)

2018-03-21

China

Operators' consideration of disaster preparedness, disaster reduction and disaster response

2/50

2018-03-21

China

Further enhanced studies on emergency telecommunications as well as related knowledge and experience sharing

2/36

2018-02-19

India

Implementing a common alert protocol-based Earthquake Early-Warning system in North Region of India

Incoming liaison statements for Question 5/2

Web

Received

Source

Title

2/422

2021-03-15

ITU-R Working Party 5D

Liaison statement from ITU-R Working Party 5D to ITU-D Study Group 2 Question 5/2 on utilization of telecommunications/ICTS for disaster preparedness, mitigation and response

2/365

2021-01-12

ITU-T Study Group 2

Liaison statement from ITU-T Study Group 2 to ITU-D SG1, ITU-SG2 Question 5/2 and Question 6/2 on establishment of a new ITU-T Focus Group on Artificial Intelligence for Natural Disaster Management (FG-AI4NDM) and first meeting (Virtual, 15-17 March 2021)

2/362

2020-11-20

ITU-T Study Group 11

Liaison statement from ITU-T Study Group 11 to ITU-D SG2 Q5/2 on Disaster Relief Use Cases

2/361

2020-11-23

ITU-R Working Party 5B

Liaison statement from ITU-R Working Party 5B to ITU-T Study Group 11 (copy to ITU-D SG2 Q5/2) on Disaster Relief Use Cases

2/359

2020-11-04

ITU-R Disaster Relief Liaison Rapporteur

Report from the ITU-R Disaster Relief Liaison Rapporteur

2/357

2020-10-21

ITU-R Working Party 5D

Liaison statement from ITU-R Working Party 5D to ITU-T Study Group 11 (copy to ITU-D SG2 Q5/2) on Disaster Relief Use Cases

2/355

2020-10-21

ITU-R Working Party 5D

Liaison statement from ITU-R Working Party 5D to ITU-D SG2 Q5/2 on utilization of telecommunications/ICTs for disaster risk reduction and management

RGQ2/286

2020-07-14

ITU-R Working Party 5D

Liaison statement from ITU-R Working Party 5D to ITU-D SG2 Q5/2 on utilization of telecommunications/ICTs for disaster risk reduction and management

RGQ2/225

2020-08-07

ITU-R Working Party 5A

Liaison statement from ITU-R Working Party 5A to ITU-D SG2 Q5/2 on utilization of telecommunications/ICTs for disaster risk reduction and management

RGQ2/224

2020-08-07

ITU-R Working Party 5A

Liaison statement from ITU-R Working Party 5A to ITU-D SG2 Q5/2 on Disaster Relief Use Cases

RGQ2/211

2020-07-17

Disaster Relief Liaison Rapporteur

Report on Disaster Relief

RGQ2/206
+Ann.1

2020-03-25

ITU-T Study Group 11

Liaison statement from ITU-T SG11 to ITU-D SG2 Q5/2 on disaster relief use cases

2/256

2019-12-05

ITU-R Study Group 5

Liaison statement from ITU-R SG5 to ITU-D SG1 and SG2 on consideration of the needs of developing countries in the development and implementation of IMT

2/245
+Ann.1

2019-11-22

ITU-T Study Group 11

Liaison statement from ITU-T Study Group 11 to ITU-D Study Group 2 Question 5/2 on disaster relief use cases

RGQ2/130
+Ann.1

2019-07-22

ITU-T Study Group 15

Liaison statement from ITU-T SG15 to ITU-D SG1 and SG2 on inter-Sector coordination

RGQ2/124
(Rev.1)

2019-07-18

ITU-R study groups - ITU-R Working Party 4B

Liaison statement from ITU-R WP4B to ITU-D SG1 and SG2 on interrelated activities of ITU-R and ITU-D in response to Resolution ITU-R 69 (RA-15)

RGQ2/120

2019-07-09

ITU-R study groups - ITU-R Working Party 4B

Liaison statement from ITU-R WP4B to ITU-D SG1 and SG2 on interrelated activities of ITU-R and ITU-D in response to Resolution ITU-R 69 (RA-15)

RGQ2/116
+Ann.1-2

2019-05-29

ITU-T Study Group 20

Liaison statement from ITU-T SG20 to ITU-D SG1 and SG2 on ITU inter-sector coordination

RGQ2/114
+Ann.1-2

2019-06-12

ITU-T Study Group 5

Liaison statement from ITU-T SG5 to ITU-D SG1 and SG2 on ITU inter-sector coordination

RGQ2/112

2019-04-19

ITU-R Disaster Relief Liaison Rapporteur

Report from the ITU-R Disaster Relief Liaison Rapporteur

2/TD/18
+Ann.1

2019-03-20

ITU-T Study Group 11

Liaison statement from ITU-T SG11 to ITU-D SG2 Q5/2 on disaster relief use cases

2/TD/13

2019-03-15

ITU-T Study Group 2

Liaison statement from ITU-T SG2 to ITU-D SG2 Q5/2 on Terms and Definitions for Disaster Relief Systems and Framework of Disaster Management

2/183

2019-02-11

ITU-R Study Group 5

Liaison statement from ITU-R Study Group 5 to ITU-D Study Group 2 Question 5/2 on Recommendation ITU-R F.1105-4 (Fixed wireless systems for disaster mitigation and relief operations)

2/124

2018-11-09

ITU-R study groups – ITU-R Working Party 5A

Liaison statement from ITU-R SG5 WP5A to ITU-D Study Group 2 Question 5/2 on disaster relief systems

2/120

2018-10-30

ITU-R Disaster Relief Liaison Rapporteur

Report from the ITU-R Disaster Relief Liaison Rapporteur

RGQ2/TD/3

2018-09-28

ITU-R study groups – ITU-R Working Party 7C

Liaison statement from ITU-R WP7C to ITU-D SG2 Q5/2 on utilization of telecommunications/ICTs for disaster preparedness, mitigation and response

RGQ2/1 7
+Ann.1

2018-08-02

ITU-T Study Group 11

Liaison statement from ITU-T SG11 to ITU-D SG2 Q5/2 on disaster relief use cases

RGQ2/14
+Ann.1

2018-07-18

ITU-R study groups – ITU-R Working Party 4A

Liaison statement from the ITU-R WP 4A to ITU-D Study Group 1 and 2 on interrelated activities of ITU-R and ITU-D in response to Resolution ITU-R 69 (RA-15)

RGQ2/12
+Ann.1

2018-07-18

ITU-T Study Group 2

Liaison statement from ITU-T SG2 to ITU-D SG2 Q5/2 on E.sup.fdr "Framework of disaster management for disaster relief systems"

RGQ2/11
+Ann.1

2018-07-18

ITU-T Study Group 2

Liaison statement from ITU-T SG2 to ITU-D SG2 Q5/2 on E.td-dr "Terms and definitions for disaster relief systems, network resilience and recovery"

RGQ2/10

2018-07-17

ITU-R study groups – ITU-R Working Party 4B

Liaison statement from ITU-R WP 4B to ITU-D SG1 Q1/1 and Q2/1 and SG2 Q1/2 and Q5/2 on interrelated activities of ITU-R and ITU-D in response to Resolution ITU-R 69 (RA-15)

RGQ2/2

2018-05-23

ITU-R Disaster Relief Liaison Rapporteur

Report from the ITU-R Disaster Relief Liaison Rapporteur

2/32

2017-11-24

ITU-R Disaster Relief Liaison Rapporteur

Report from the ITU-R Disaster Relief Liaison Rapporteur

2/31

2017-11-24

ITU-R study groups - Working Party 7C

Liaison Statement from ITU-R Working Party 7C to ITU-D Study Group 2 Q5/2 on the utilization of telecommunications/ICTs for disaster preparedness, mitigation and response

2/20

2017-11-24

ITU-T Study Group 2

Liaison Statement from ITU-T SG2 to ITU-D SG2 Question 5/2 on national emergency telecommunication system in developing countries

2/16

2017-11-24

ITU-R Disaster Relief Liaison Rapporteur

Report from the ITU-R Disaster Relief Liaison Rapporteur

2/15

2017-11-22

ITU-T Study Group 15

Liaison Statement from ITU-T SG15 to ITU-D Study Group 2 Q5/2 on new Supplement on the framework of disaster management

[1] ITU-D SG2 Document  2/70 from India

[2] ITU-D SG2 Document  2/70 from India

[3] ITU-D Document  SG2RGQ/121 from Haiti

[4] ITU-D Document  SG2RGQ/182+Annexes from the World Food Programme

[5] ITU, op. cit. (note 2), Annex A

[6] ITU-D SG2 Document  SG2RGQ/145 from New Zealand

[7] ODESC is a committee of Chief Executives that manages national security in New Zealand. It is chaired by the Chief Executive of the Department of the Prime Minister and Cabinet.

[8] Sally Potter. Recommendations for New Zealand agencies in writing effective short warning messages . GNS Science report 2018/2.Lower Hutt, New Zealand, 2018.

[9] For weather, wind speed can be measured in km/h, or rainfall in mm/hour. For tsunamis, it could be wave height in metres, and for earthquakes, Modified Mercalli intensity. Intensity levels are less clear for perils such as pandemics.

[10] For Australia event codes, see: Australian Government. CAP-AU-STD version 3.0: Australian Government Standard for the Common Alerting Protocol (CAP-AU-STD) and in particular Annex 2 to CAP-AP .

[11] For Canada event codes, see: Government of Canada. Public Safety Canada. CAP-CP Event References 1.0 .

[12] ITU-D SG2 Document  SG2RGQ/222 from Burundi

[13] ITU-D SG2 Document  2/410 from Inmarsat (United Kingdom)

[14] Inmarsat. Latest News. TSF on the ground in the wake of hurricane Matthew . 5 October 2016.

[15] Inmarsat. Disaster Response. Reliable connectivity when seconds count ; Inmarsat. Latest News. TSF deploys to West Indies as hurricane Irma batters islands . 6 September 2017; and Inmarsat. Latest News. Over 1,000 hurricane victims helped by TSF . 26 October 2017.

[16] Inmarsat. Latest News. Typhoon relief efforts aided by satcoms . 28 September 2018.

[17] Inmarsat. Latest News. TSF deploys to Indonesia in aftermath of devastating tsunami . 1 October 2018.

[18] Inmarsat. Latest News. Hurricane Dorian victims offered satellite call lifeline . 12 September 2019.

[19] ITU-D SG2 Document  2/158 from China

[20] ITU-D SG2 Document  2/159 from China

[21] McKinsey Global Institute. Smart Cities: Digital Solutions for a More Livable Future . McKinsey and Company, June 2018.

[22] The sample comprised 50 cities around the world that had already developed or announced ambitious smart-city development plans and were selected for their overall representativeness in terms of geographical coverage, differences in income levels, population density and infrastructure quality.

[23] ITU-D SG2 Document  SG2RGQ/183 from China

[24] ITU-D SG2 Document  2/269 from India

[25] Nikita Mandhani. How Indians are using social media to help flood-hit Kerala . BBC.com. BBC News Delhi, 20 August 2018.

[26] Scroll.in. As Kerala battles flood, social media helps connect anxious relatives, coordinate relief efforts . 17 August 2018.

[27] Kamala Thiagarajan. How Social Media Came to the Rescue after Kerala's Floods . npr.org, 22 August 2018.

[28] Ibid.

[29] Scroll.in. #ChennaiRainsHelp: How a flooded city is using Twitter to lend a hand to strangers . 2 December 2015.

[30] See The Economic Times website

[31] Microsoft. Microsoft Stories India. Digital Agriculture: Farmers in India are using AI to increase crop yields . Microsoft News Center, India, 7 November 2017.

[32] ITU-D SG2 Document  2/277 from China

[33] ITU-D SG2 Document  2/309 from Japan

[34] ITU-D SG2 Document  2/327 from Loon LLC (United States)

[35] ITU-D SG2 Document  SG2RGQ/228 from China

[36] ITU-D SG2 Document  SG2RGQ/237 from the EMEA Satellite Operators Association (ESOA)

[37] W.A.S.P. Manufacturing Ltd. https:// waspwildfire .com/

[38] Inmarsat. Solutions and Services. Tailings insight: Award-winning tailings dam monitoring solutions, enabling smarter and faster decision-making, safer operations and enhanced regulatory compliance .

[39] Skywave.com. Application Profile: satellite for Early Flood Warning .

[40] Australian Government. Bureau of Meteorology. Deep Ocean Tsunami Detection Buoys .

[41] Inmarsat. Solutions and Services. BGAN 2M .

[42] Inmarsat. Solutions and Services. Connectivity you can rely on .

[43] Document 2/401 from the National Institute of Information and Communications Technology (NICT) (Japan)

[44] https:// www .soumu .go .jp/ main _content/ 000361388 .pdf [in Japanese]

[45] ITU-D SG2 Document  2/36 from India

[46] ITU-D SG2 Document  SG2RGQ/77 from India

[47] ITU-D SG2 Document  2/56(Rev.1) from the China Telecommunications Corporation (China Telecom) (China)

[48] ITU-D SG2 Document  SG2RGQ/33 from Brazil

[49] ITU-D SG2 Document  SG2RGQ/60 from the National Institute of Information and Communications Technology (NICT) (Japan)

[50] ITU-D SG2 Document  SG2RGQ/28+Annex from Japan

[51] ITU-D SG2 Document  2/157(Rev.1) from China

[52] ITU-D SG2 Document  SG2RGQ/150 from the United States

[53] ITU-D SG2 Document  SG2RGQ/147 from India

[54] ITU-D SG2 Document SG2RGQ/152+Annex from the United States

[55] United States Government. FEMA. FEMA’s Mitigation Directorate fact sheet .

[56] Sub-title: “Summary of a Workshop on Current Knowledge and Research Gaps”. Computer Science and Tele-communications Board, National Research Council, The National Academies Press, Washington, DC, 2011.

[57] Sub-title: “Report of a Workshop on Current Knowledge and Research Gaps”. Computer Science and Tele-communications Board, National Research Council, The National Academies Press, Washington, DC, 2013.

[58] J. David Goodman and David Gilles. Cellphone Alerts Used in New York to Search for Bombing Suspect . The New York Times, 19 September 2016.

[59] Samuel Reed. Wedding almost a disaster – literally . Sidney Daily News, 13 September 2016.

[60] CBS News. Report: Pa. man who saw Amber Alert helped find infant abducted by murder suspect . 3 January 2017.

[61] ITU-D SG2 Document  SG2RGQ/61 from China

[62] ITU-D SG2 Document SG2/384 from Algeria

[63] ITU-D SG2 Document  SG2RGQ/74+Annex from Japan

[64] ITU-D SG2 Document SG2RGQ/188(Rev.1) from Japan

[65] ITU-D SG2 Document  2/252 from the Democratic Republic of the Congo

[66] ITU-D SG2 Document  2/308 from Facebook (United States)

[67] Molly Jackman. Using Data to Help Communities Recover and Rebuild . Facebook Newsroom, 7 June 2017.

[68] NetHope Blog. Unlocking insights from data: Collaboration with private sector creates cutting-edge maps for disaster response , 9 October 2018.

[69] Paige Maas et al. (Facebook). Facebook Disaster Maps: Aggregate Insights for Crisis Response and Recovery . WiPe Paper – Social Media in Crisis and Conflicts (ID 176), in Zeno Franco et al. (Eds). Conference Proceedings, 16th International Conference on Information Systems for Crisis Response and Management. Valencia (Spain), 19-22 May 2019, pp. 836-847.

[70] ITU-D SG2 Document  SG2RGQ/220(Rev.1) from China

[71] ITU-D SG2 Document  SG2RGQ/283 from the United States

[72] See the coronavirus page on the FCC website

[73] Statement of Chairman Ajit Pai , Federal Communications Commission, Hearing on the Oversight of the Federal Communications Commission Spectrum Auctions Program, Fiscal Year 2021, before the Subcommittee on Financial Services and General Government, U.S. Senate Committee on Appropriations, 16 June 2020.

[74] FCC. News Release. FCC Grants AT&T Temporary Spectrum Access for Puerto Rico and U.S. Virgin Islands to Meet Growing Broadband Needs during Covid-19 Pandemic . 26 March 2020.

[75] FCC. News Release. FCC Provides T-Mobile Temporary Access to Additional Spectrum to Help Keep Americans Connected during Coronavirus Pandemic . 15 March 2020.

[76] FCC. News Release. FCC Grants Temporary Spectrum Access to Support Connectivity on Tribal Reservation during Covid-19 Pandemic . 30 March 2020.

[77] FCC. News Release. FCC Grants the Navajo Nation Temporary Spectrum to Meet Increased Wireless Broadband Needs during Covid-19 Pandemic . 30 March 2020.

[78] FCC. News Release. FCC Partners with Institute of Museum and Library Services to Address Digital Divide during COVID-19 . 21 May 2020.

[79] Funding appropriated by Congress as part of the CARES Act

[80] FCC. News release. FCC Approves Final Set of COVID-19 Telehealth Program Applications . 8 July 2020.

[81] FCC. News Release. Chairman Pai Welcomes Increase in Rural Health Care Funding . 13 March 2020.

[82] Ibid.

[83] The Rural Health Care programme provides funding to eligible healthcare providers for the telecommunication and broadband services needed to provide healthcare.

[84] The FCC's E-Rate programme makes telecommunication and information services more affordable for schools and libraries by providing discounts for telecommunications, Internet access and internal connections to eligible schools and libraries.

[85] FCC. News Release. FCC Waives Rural Health Care and E-Rate Program Gift Rules to Promote Connectivity for Hospitals and Students during Coronavirus Pandemic . 18 March 2020; see also FCC. Order. E-Rate and RHC COVID-Related Waivers Extended . 3 September 2020.

[86] USD 16 billion in funding is to come from the CARES Act and was announced in April 2020.

[87] FCC. News Release. FCC and U.S. Department of Education promote remote education so students can continue learning . 27 April 2020.

[88] FCC. Consumer Guide. Lifeline Support for Affordable Communications . Accessed 27 August 2020.

[89] FCC. News Release. FCC Acts to Keep Low-income Americans Connected during Coronavirus Pandemic . 30 March 2020; see also FCC. Order. WCB Extends Lifeline Program Waivers Due to COVID-19 ., 17 August 2020.

[90] The FCC’s arbitrage rules are aimed at preventing telecom companies from exploiting the intercarrier compensation system by generating inflated call volumes to pad their bottom lines.

[91] FCC. News Release. FCC Waives Rules to Ensure Consumers Can Continue Accessing Conference Calling Services From Zoom And WebEx During The Covid-19 Crisis . 27 March 2020.

[92] FCC. News Release. FCC grants flexibility to relay service providers to preserve communications access for Americans with disabilities . 16 March 2020.

[93] For example, one company raised USD 275 000 for a relief fund for COVID-19 related economic hardship and another raised USD8 million for coronavirus relief via a virtual music concert.

[94] See FCC. Consumer. Home Network Tips for the Coronavirus Pandemic . Updated 1 July 2020.

[95] FCC. News Release. FCC, FTC demand robocall-enabling service providers cut off COVID-19-related international scammers . 20 May 2020.

[96] FCC Public Notice. DA 20-420. FCC Tasks BDAC Working Group with Addressing COVID-19 Challenges . 16 April 2020.

[97] ITU. Inter-Sector Coordination Group (ISCG) documents. Mapping Tables .

[98] ITU. ISCG. Mapping of ITU-D SG1 and SG2 Questions to ITU-T Questions .

[99] ITU. ISCG. Mapping of ITU-D SG1 and SG2 Questions to ITU-R Working Parties

[100] For further information, see the panel session webpage

[101] For further information, see the panel session webpage

[102] For further information, see the panel session webpage .

[103] For further information, see the webinar webpage